It is used to express the activity which was still going on in the past or
It is used to express the activity that is being done wheel another activity is happened is the past.
S + Was/were + V1 (ing) +... ( + )
S + was/were + not + V1 (ing) +... (-)
Was/were + s + V1 (ing) +... (?)
Example
She was playing football this morning (+)
She was not playing football this morning (-)
Was she playing football this morning (?)
Keterangan
a. ketika ada dua kejadian berlangsung bersama maka keduanya menggunakan past continuous.
Example
- While Rudy was reading a book Karina was not watching TV
- Fini was watching TV while Manan reading a book
b. Tapi jika ada satu kejadian dan disusul dengan kejadian yang kedua maka kalimat yang pertama menggunakan past continuous yang kedua menggunakan past tense
Example
- While Harry was watching TV Rudy read a book
- When Fini come home nona was watching TV
While : Diikuti past continuous kemudian past tense
When : Diikuti past tense kemudian past continuous
DESCRIPTION
Text description bertujuan untuk menggambarkan seseorang, sesuatu, suatu tempat, seekor binatang seara khusus text description menyodorkan banyak informasi tentang orang, benda, tempat, binatang secara gamblang, rinci, dan dapat dipublikasikan atau digambarkan.
Generic structure of description
1. Identification : Pengenalan subjek atau hal yang akan dideskripsikan
2. Description : Menginformasikan ciri-ciri subjek contohnya sifat, psikologis, prilaku, tampilan fisik ciri-ciri khas, dan kualitas.
Description biasanya menggunakan simple present tense.
Example
Identification I have a set. It is a dog and I call it Crow.
Crow is a Chinese breed. It is small, fluffy, and cute. It has got thick brown fur. When I cuddle it, the fur feels soft. Crow does not like comes. Every day it eats soft done like steamed rice, fish or bread. Every morning i give her milk.
Description And bread. When I an at school, Crow plays with my cat. They got along well, and never fright maybe because Crow does not Carl a lot. It treats the other animals in our house gently, and it never eats shoes. Crow is really a sweet and friendly animal.
HOW TO DO THINGS (PROCEDURE)
Social function of procedure
The purpose of the social function of a procedure is to describe how something is done or made through a sequence of instructions.
Generic Structure of a Procedure
a. Goal: something we want to reach (to do/ to make)
b. Materials: and equipments needed
c. Steps: series of instructions using sequence of orders
Significant Grammatical Features
a. Use of simple present tense mostly in the form of imperative/command (positive and negative)
b. Use of the sequence of orders marked by the word: first, then, next, after that, finally, etc.
c. Use of must and must not
Example
Goal : How to make Sweet Coffee
Tools : 1. Cup
2. Spoon
3. under layer
Materials : Sweet coffee
Water warm
Sugar
Steps : 1. Pour coffee and sugar sufficiently into cup
2. Pour water warm into cup with mix well
3. Put cup in up under layer
4. Sweet coffee is really to be served
PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSES
Digunakan untuk menyatakan perbuatan yang sedang terjadi.
S + tube (is, am, are) + V1 (ing) +... (+)
S + tube + not + V1 (ing) +... (-)
Tube + S + V1 (ing) +... (?)
Example
1. I am writing in the blackboard now (+)
I am not writing in the blackboard now (-)
Am I writing in the blackboard now (?)
2. She is reading a book this moment (+)
She is not reading a book this moment (-)
Is she reading a book this moment (?)
PASSIVE VOICE
Tube + T3
Active
Simple Present Tense
S + V1 (s/es)
She eats an apple on Sunday
Present continuous tense
S + tube + V1 (ing)
She is eating an apple now
Simple Past tense
S + V2
She ate an apple yesterday
Simple Future tense
S + Will/shall + V1
Shall (I, we)
She will eat apple tomorrow
Passive
Simple Present Tense
S + tube + V3
An apple is eaten by her yesterday
Present Continuous Tense
S + tube + being + V3
An apple is being eaten by her now
Simple Past Tense
S + tube (Was/were) + V3
An apple was eaten by her yesterday
Simple Future Tense
S + Will/shall + be + V3
An apple will be eaten by her tomorrow.
ONCE UPON A TIME (NARRATIVE)
General Characteristic of Narrative
1. Social function of Narrative
To entertain, amuse, and to deal with actual or vicarious experiences in different ways. Narrative deal with problematic events which lead to a crisis or turning point of some kids which in turn finds a resolution
2. Narrative Text Type
Narrative text types are in the form of: fable, fairy tales, historical stories, folktale, legends, mysteries, etc.
3. Generic Structure of Narrative
Orientation : sets the scene and introduces the participants
Complication : a crisis cerise
Resolution : the crisis is resolved for better or for worse
4. Significant Language Feature of Narrative
a) Focus in specific and individualized participants
b) Use of relational processes (action verbs)
c) Use relational processes and mental processes
d) Use of past tense
e) Use of temporal conjunctions and temporal circumstances
f) Use of process (saying verbs) in direct and speech.
Example
Title Cinderella
Orientation Once upon a time there was a beautiful girl called Cinderella. She lived with her stepsister and stepmother. They were very bossy. She had to do all the housework.
Complication One day an invitation to the ball came to the family. Her stepsister did not let her go, so Cinderella was very sad. The stepsister went to the ball without her.
resolution Fortunately, the fairy good other came and helped her to get to the ball. At the call, Cinderella dance with the prince. The prince fell in love with her then he married her. They lived happily ever after.
BREAKING NEWS (NEW ITEM)
General Characteristic of News Item
1. Social Function of News Item
To inform the reader, listener or viewers the particulars/details of an event, accident or incident take place
2. Text Type
News Item (informative article)
3. Generic Structure of Narrative
Newsworthy event: First, write the country/city/place where the events took pace. Then, present the information on the who, when and the actual location of the events.
Background events: The body of the news items tells the events that took pace in the order that they happened. You may give general comments on the events and include quotes from people involved in the events
Sources: The events start to end. It usually in attends the comments from the public, like, the witnesses, police or expert
4. Significant Language Feature of Narrative
Action Verb
Adjective
Connectors to do with the time and sequence
Pronoun
Simple past tense
Adverbs
Compound and complex sentences
Example
Title Man jailed for striking RI maid
News worthy event SINGAPORE - A supervisor was jailed for two moths for repeatedly striking his Indonesian maid on the head and back with a television remote control, news reports said on Thursday
background even 1
Even 2
Even 3 Muhamad Shafiq Woon Abdullah admitted in a Singapore court he physical abused the woman on several occasions between June and October 2002, The straits time said.
The magistrate's court heard that Shafiq, 31 began striking Winarti, 22 about a month after she started working for him.
He hit her on the head with the TV sets sent control because he was unhappy with her work. On one occasion, he punched her on the back after
source Accusing her of daydreaming – DPA
Tampilkan postingan dengan label Bahasa Inggris. Tampilkan semua postingan
Tampilkan postingan dengan label Bahasa Inggris. Tampilkan semua postingan
Selasa, 29 Maret 2011
SIMPLE PAST TENSE ( KATA LAMPAU )
It is used to keel lie event in the past.
1. Verbal sentence
S + V2 +... ( + )
S + Didn't + V1 +... ( - )
Did + S + V1 +... ( ? )
Example
She went to office yesterday (+)
She didn't go to office yesterday (-)
Did she go to office yesterday (?)
2. Nominal sentence
S + was/were + adjective/adverb/nom (+)
S + was/were + not + adjective/adverb/nom (-)
Was/were + S + adjective/adverb/nom (?)
Was (I, he, she, it)
Were (you, they, we)
Example
My brother was a doctor (+)
My brother wasn't a doctor (-)
Was my brother a doctor (?)
EXPRESSING REQUEST
When we have a request, we can use some forms of the request expressions.
Can you
Could you + V1 +....?
Would you Maukah kamu…?
Would you mind + V1 (ing) +....?
I wonder if you + V1 +.....?
Example
a. Can you open the window, please?
b. Could you raise your hand?
c. Would you mind sitting on my chair?
COMMAND AND PROHIBITION
a. Command (infinitive to)
- Cook there vegetables!
- Buy fruits in the market!
b. Prohibition (negative command)
Don’t + infinitive + o +!
- Don't come late!
- Don't eat in the class!
You + may not + infinitive + o +!
- You may not open the door!
- You may not close the window!
You + must not + infinitive + o +!
- You must not stand up!
- You must not sit down!
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
Digunakan untuk menyatakan perbuatan/peristiwa yang dilakukan sehari-hari.
1. Verbal
S + V1 (s/es) + O (+)
S + Do/does + Not + V1 + O (-)
Do/does +S + V1 + O (?)
Time signal
Every day
No noonday
Always
Sometime
Generally
After
Do = jamak (I, you, they, we)
Does = tunggal (he, she, it)
Example
a. She goes to school every day (+)
She does not go to school every day (-)
Does She to school every day (?)
b. We study English on Monday (+)
We do not study English on Monday (-)
Do we study English Monday (?)
Keterangan
Penambahan "s" atau "es" hanya untuk bilangan tunggal dan untuk kalimat pasifnya saja.
2. Nominal
S + tube (is, am, are) + Noun/adjective (+)
S + tube + Not + Noun/adjective (-)
Tube + S + Noun/adjective ( )
Example
My brother is a teacher (+)
My brother is not a teacher (-)
Is my brother a teacher (?)
PREPOSITION
Listen and Repeat
At = digunakan untuk menyatakan tempat dan waktu
On = digunakan untuk menyatakan waktu
In = digunakan untuk menyatakan tempat dan waktu
At half
At night
At Jakarta
On Wednesday
On 15th April
In Bandung
In 1956
EXPRESSING (LIKES AND DISLIKES)
The bold sentences in the dialogue constitute the expression of like and dislike
There are roof expressions of stating like and dislike.
Stating like
I really like... ( watching foot ball/chicken )
I'm quite keen on... ( hiking/tennis )
I'm fond of... ( playing foot ball/music )
Agreeing with like
So do I
Oh yes, I do too
So am I
Disagreeing with like
Oh, do you? I do not really
Oh, are you? I am not really
Oh, really
Stating dislike
I really don't like... (watching horror films)
I hate... (that man)
I dislike... (people smoking in the bus/ rock music)
I’m not particular keen on... (watching boxing)
I don't find... (hiking/that novel) very good/enjoy able.
I think... (his speech is rather boring)
Agreeing with dislikes
neither am I
neither do I
Yes, it's awful/rather terrible, isn't it?
Disagreeing with dislike
Oh, really?
Oh, don't you? I really like...
Oh, aren't you? I'm quite fee on!
Example
Give your comments by using like or dislike
1. You agree with the following statements. What would you say?
a. I don't find watching horror films very interesting.
b. I'm not fond of reading a comic
c. I especially dislike hard rock music
2. You disagree with the following statements. What would you say?
a. I'm not very keen on seafood
b. I think reading a novels is great fun.
c. I'm not over keen on swimming in the sea
Answer
1. a. Neither do I
b. Neither am I
c. Yes, it's awful, isn't it?
2 a. Oh aren't you? I'm quite been on seafood
b. Oh don't you? I really like reading a novel
c. Oh aren't you? I'm quite keen on swimming
PAST CONTINUES TENSE
It is used to express the activity which was still going on in the past or
It is used to express the activity that is being done wheel another activity is happened is the past.
S + Was/were + V1 (ing) +... ( + )
S + was/were + not + V1 (ing) +... (-)
Was/were + s + V1 (ing) +... (?)
Example
She was playing football this morning (+)
She was not playing football this morning (-)
Was she playing football this morning (?)
Keterangan
a. ketika ada dua kejadian berlangsung bersama maka keduanya menggunakan past continuous.
Example
- While Rudy was reading a book Karina was not watching TV
- Fini was watching TV while Manan reading a book
b. Tapi jika ada satu kejadian dan disusul dengan kejadian yang kedua maka kalimat yang pertama menggunakan past continuous yang kedua menggunakan past tense
Example
- While Harry was watching TV Rudy read a book
- When Fini come home nona was watching TV
While : Diikuti past continuous kemudian past tense
When : Diikuti past tense kemudian past continuous
DESCRIPTION
Text description bertujuan untuk menggambarkan seseorang, sesuatu, suatu tempat, seekor binatang seara khusus text description menyodorkan banyak informasi tentang orang, benda, tempat, binatang secara gamblang, rinci, dan dapat dipublikasikan atau digambarkan.
Generic structure of description
1. Identification : Pengenalan subjek atau hal yang akan dideskripsikan
2. Description : Menginformasikan ciri-ciri subjek contohnya sifat, psikologis, prilaku, tampilan fisik ciri-ciri khas, dan kualitas.
Description biasanya menggunakan simple present tense.
Example
Identification I have a set. It is a dog and I call it Crow.
Crow is a Chinese breed. It is small, fluffy, and cute. It has got thick brown fur. When I cuddle it, the fur feels soft. Crow does not like comes. Every day it eats soft done like steamed rice, fish or bread. Every morning i give her milk.
Description And bread. When I an at school, Crow plays with my cat. They got along well, and never fright maybe because Crow does not Carl a lot. It treats the other animals in our house gently, and it never eats shoes. Crow is really a sweet and friendly animal.
HOW TO DO THINGS (PROCEDURE)
Social function of procedure
The purpose of the social function of a procedure is to describe how something is done or made through a sequence of instructions.
Generic Structure of a Procedure
a. Goal: something we want to reach (to do/ to make)
b. Materials: and equipments needed
c. Steps: series of instructions using sequence of orders
Significant Grammatical Features
a. Use of simple present tense mostly in the form of imperative/command (positive and negative)
b. Use of the sequence of orders marked by the word: first, then, next, after that, finally, etc.
c. Use of must and must not
Example
Goal : How to make Sweet Coffee
Tools : 1. Cup
2. Spoon
3. under layer
Materials : Sweet coffee
Water warm
Sugar
Steps : 1. Pour coffee and sugar sufficiently into cup
2. Pour water warm into cup with mix well
3. Put cup in up under layer
4. Sweet coffee is really to be served.
1. Verbal sentence
S + V2 +... ( + )
S + Didn't + V1 +... ( - )
Did + S + V1 +... ( ? )
Example
She went to office yesterday (+)
She didn't go to office yesterday (-)
Did she go to office yesterday (?)
2. Nominal sentence
S + was/were + adjective/adverb/nom (+)
S + was/were + not + adjective/adverb/nom (-)
Was/were + S + adjective/adverb/nom (?)
Was (I, he, she, it)
Were (you, they, we)
Example
My brother was a doctor (+)
My brother wasn't a doctor (-)
Was my brother a doctor (?)
EXPRESSING REQUEST
When we have a request, we can use some forms of the request expressions.
Can you
Could you + V1 +....?
Would you Maukah kamu…?
Would you mind + V1 (ing) +....?
I wonder if you + V1 +.....?
Example
a. Can you open the window, please?
b. Could you raise your hand?
c. Would you mind sitting on my chair?
COMMAND AND PROHIBITION
a. Command (infinitive to)
- Cook there vegetables!
- Buy fruits in the market!
b. Prohibition (negative command)
Don’t + infinitive + o +!
- Don't come late!
- Don't eat in the class!
You + may not + infinitive + o +!
- You may not open the door!
- You may not close the window!
You + must not + infinitive + o +!
- You must not stand up!
- You must not sit down!
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
Digunakan untuk menyatakan perbuatan/peristiwa yang dilakukan sehari-hari.
1. Verbal
S + V1 (s/es) + O (+)
S + Do/does + Not + V1 + O (-)
Do/does +S + V1 + O (?)
Time signal
Every day
No noonday
Always
Sometime
Generally
After
Do = jamak (I, you, they, we)
Does = tunggal (he, she, it)
Example
a. She goes to school every day (+)
She does not go to school every day (-)
Does She to school every day (?)
b. We study English on Monday (+)
We do not study English on Monday (-)
Do we study English Monday (?)
Keterangan
Penambahan "s" atau "es" hanya untuk bilangan tunggal dan untuk kalimat pasifnya saja.
2. Nominal
S + tube (is, am, are) + Noun/adjective (+)
S + tube + Not + Noun/adjective (-)
Tube + S + Noun/adjective ( )
Example
My brother is a teacher (+)
My brother is not a teacher (-)
Is my brother a teacher (?)
PREPOSITION
Listen and Repeat
At = digunakan untuk menyatakan tempat dan waktu
On = digunakan untuk menyatakan waktu
In = digunakan untuk menyatakan tempat dan waktu
At half
At night
At Jakarta
On Wednesday
On 15th April
In Bandung
In 1956
EXPRESSING (LIKES AND DISLIKES)
The bold sentences in the dialogue constitute the expression of like and dislike
There are roof expressions of stating like and dislike.
Stating like
I really like... ( watching foot ball/chicken )
I'm quite keen on... ( hiking/tennis )
I'm fond of... ( playing foot ball/music )
Agreeing with like
So do I
Oh yes, I do too
So am I
Disagreeing with like
Oh, do you? I do not really
Oh, are you? I am not really
Oh, really
Stating dislike
I really don't like... (watching horror films)
I hate... (that man)
I dislike... (people smoking in the bus/ rock music)
I’m not particular keen on... (watching boxing)
I don't find... (hiking/that novel) very good/enjoy able.
I think... (his speech is rather boring)
Agreeing with dislikes
neither am I
neither do I
Yes, it's awful/rather terrible, isn't it?
Disagreeing with dislike
Oh, really?
Oh, don't you? I really like...
Oh, aren't you? I'm quite fee on!
Example
Give your comments by using like or dislike
1. You agree with the following statements. What would you say?
a. I don't find watching horror films very interesting.
b. I'm not fond of reading a comic
c. I especially dislike hard rock music
2. You disagree with the following statements. What would you say?
a. I'm not very keen on seafood
b. I think reading a novels is great fun.
c. I'm not over keen on swimming in the sea
Answer
1. a. Neither do I
b. Neither am I
c. Yes, it's awful, isn't it?
2 a. Oh aren't you? I'm quite been on seafood
b. Oh don't you? I really like reading a novel
c. Oh aren't you? I'm quite keen on swimming
PAST CONTINUES TENSE
It is used to express the activity which was still going on in the past or
It is used to express the activity that is being done wheel another activity is happened is the past.
S + Was/were + V1 (ing) +... ( + )
S + was/were + not + V1 (ing) +... (-)
Was/were + s + V1 (ing) +... (?)
Example
She was playing football this morning (+)
She was not playing football this morning (-)
Was she playing football this morning (?)
Keterangan
a. ketika ada dua kejadian berlangsung bersama maka keduanya menggunakan past continuous.
Example
- While Rudy was reading a book Karina was not watching TV
- Fini was watching TV while Manan reading a book
b. Tapi jika ada satu kejadian dan disusul dengan kejadian yang kedua maka kalimat yang pertama menggunakan past continuous yang kedua menggunakan past tense
Example
- While Harry was watching TV Rudy read a book
- When Fini come home nona was watching TV
While : Diikuti past continuous kemudian past tense
When : Diikuti past tense kemudian past continuous
DESCRIPTION
Text description bertujuan untuk menggambarkan seseorang, sesuatu, suatu tempat, seekor binatang seara khusus text description menyodorkan banyak informasi tentang orang, benda, tempat, binatang secara gamblang, rinci, dan dapat dipublikasikan atau digambarkan.
Generic structure of description
1. Identification : Pengenalan subjek atau hal yang akan dideskripsikan
2. Description : Menginformasikan ciri-ciri subjek contohnya sifat, psikologis, prilaku, tampilan fisik ciri-ciri khas, dan kualitas.
Description biasanya menggunakan simple present tense.
Example
Identification I have a set. It is a dog and I call it Crow.
Crow is a Chinese breed. It is small, fluffy, and cute. It has got thick brown fur. When I cuddle it, the fur feels soft. Crow does not like comes. Every day it eats soft done like steamed rice, fish or bread. Every morning i give her milk.
Description And bread. When I an at school, Crow plays with my cat. They got along well, and never fright maybe because Crow does not Carl a lot. It treats the other animals in our house gently, and it never eats shoes. Crow is really a sweet and friendly animal.
HOW TO DO THINGS (PROCEDURE)
Social function of procedure
The purpose of the social function of a procedure is to describe how something is done or made through a sequence of instructions.
Generic Structure of a Procedure
a. Goal: something we want to reach (to do/ to make)
b. Materials: and equipments needed
c. Steps: series of instructions using sequence of orders
Significant Grammatical Features
a. Use of simple present tense mostly in the form of imperative/command (positive and negative)
b. Use of the sequence of orders marked by the word: first, then, next, after that, finally, etc.
c. Use of must and must not
Example
Goal : How to make Sweet Coffee
Tools : 1. Cup
2. Spoon
3. under layer
Materials : Sweet coffee
Water warm
Sugar
Steps : 1. Pour coffee and sugar sufficiently into cup
2. Pour water warm into cup with mix well
3. Put cup in up under layer
4. Sweet coffee is really to be served.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
Digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu perbuatan yang terjadi pada masa lalu dimasa waktu tidak tertentu (bentuk waktu selesai sekarang).
S + have/has + V3 + O
Keterangan
Have untuk subjek they, we, I, you has untuk subjek she, he, it
Example
1. They have cathee this morning
2. Dedi has antihu pencil in the market.
Preference
Digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu perbandingan
….. like….. better than…..
….. prefer….. to …..
….. would rather….. than….
1. I like coffee batter than tea
(Suka ) (dari pada)
2. Eka prefer fried rice to fried noodle
(Lebih suka) (daripada)
3. siti would rather ice than milkshake
Diposkan oleh Desire Peace di 15:04 0 komentar
Label: materi bahasa inggris
materi bahasa inggris kelas X
TELLING SOMETHING IN THE PAST (RECOUNT)
Recount adalah salah satu bentuk laporan yang menceritakan mengenai kejadian yang sudah terjadi yang tujuannya untuk memberikan informasi atau menghibur pembaca.
Macam - macam Recount
Factual Recount lapangan yang berdasarkan kenyataan
Personal Recount lapangan yang tidak berdasarkan kenyataan
Imaginative Recount lapangan yang tidak berdasarkan kenyataan.
Ciri - ciri kebaharaan Recount
Use of simple past tense.
Temporal sequence.
Use of material processes.
Focus on specific participants.
Circumstances of time and places.
Generic Structure of Recount
Orientation : Pemberian informasi tentang siapa, dimana, dan kapan terjadi.
Even : Rekaman kejadian yang biasanya di sampaikan secure berretta.
Re-orientation : Kesimpulan ( akhir cerita )
Example Task Recount
Orientation On Wednesday, my students and I went to Jogjakarta. We stayed at Dirgahayu hotel which is not far from Malioboro
Even On Thursday we visited the temples in Prambanan. Tidied are three big temples, the Brahmana and syiwa temples, because went temple is being renovated.
Re-orientation On Friday morning we went to Jogja kraton. We spent about two hours there. We were lucky because we were led by a smart and friendly guide. Then we continued our journey to Borobudur. We arrived there at four p.m. at 5 p.m. We heard and announcement that Borobudur gate would be closed
In the evening we left for Jakarta by wisata bus.
S + have/has + V3 + O
Keterangan
Have untuk subjek they, we, I, you has untuk subjek she, he, it
Example
1. They have cathee this morning
2. Dedi has antihu pencil in the market.
Preference
Digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu perbandingan
….. like….. better than…..
….. prefer….. to …..
….. would rather….. than….
1. I like coffee batter than tea
(Suka ) (dari pada)
2. Eka prefer fried rice to fried noodle
(Lebih suka) (daripada)
3. siti would rather ice than milkshake
Diposkan oleh Desire Peace di 15:04 0 komentar
Label: materi bahasa inggris
materi bahasa inggris kelas X
TELLING SOMETHING IN THE PAST (RECOUNT)
Recount adalah salah satu bentuk laporan yang menceritakan mengenai kejadian yang sudah terjadi yang tujuannya untuk memberikan informasi atau menghibur pembaca.
Macam - macam Recount
Factual Recount lapangan yang berdasarkan kenyataan
Personal Recount lapangan yang tidak berdasarkan kenyataan
Imaginative Recount lapangan yang tidak berdasarkan kenyataan.
Ciri - ciri kebaharaan Recount
Use of simple past tense.
Temporal sequence.
Use of material processes.
Focus on specific participants.
Circumstances of time and places.
Generic Structure of Recount
Orientation : Pemberian informasi tentang siapa, dimana, dan kapan terjadi.
Even : Rekaman kejadian yang biasanya di sampaikan secure berretta.
Re-orientation : Kesimpulan ( akhir cerita )
Example Task Recount
Orientation On Wednesday, my students and I went to Jogjakarta. We stayed at Dirgahayu hotel which is not far from Malioboro
Even On Thursday we visited the temples in Prambanan. Tidied are three big temples, the Brahmana and syiwa temples, because went temple is being renovated.
Re-orientation On Friday morning we went to Jogja kraton. We spent about two hours there. We were lucky because we were led by a smart and friendly guide. Then we continued our journey to Borobudur. We arrived there at four p.m. at 5 p.m. We heard and announcement that Borobudur gate would be closed
In the evening we left for Jakarta by wisata bus.
ADVERB
A. Adverb of manner (kata keterangan cara)
Kata-kata yang termasuk kedalam adverb of manner diantaranya adalah :
Best : terbaik yang paling baik
Better : makin baik, lebih sehat, lebih suka
Calmly : dengan tenang
Carefully : dengan hati-hati, dengan teliti
Carelesly : dengan sembarangan, gegabah,tanpa tanggung jawab
Early : pagi-pagi
Fast : cepat
Faster : lebih cepat
Grandually : secara berangsur-angsur
Hard : keras, lebat, dengan tajam
Harder : lebih keras, lebih telat, dan lebih tajam
Hurrledly : terburu-buru, tergopoh-gopoh
Late: terlambat
Well: baik, jauh, benar
Example
a. I am Felling better today
b. She is best language spanis in the class
c. He driver carefully every where
B. Adverb of place (keterangan tempat)
Kata-kata yang termasuk kedalam adverb of place diantaranya:
Above : Diatas
Abroad : Luar negri, dengan luas, tersiar, tersebar
Below : Dibawah, kebawah
Down town : Kota
Far : Jauh
Gance : Dari sini
Here : Disini
In side : Kedalam
Near : Keluar, diluar
Thence : Dari Sana
There : Disana, disitu, kesana
Example
a. She lives above tree
b. They go to abroad every year
c. We go to down town
C. adverb of definite time (keterangan waktu yang jelas)
Kata-kata yang termasuk kedalam adverb of definite time diantaranya :
A few days Ag : Beberapa hari yang lalu
A few minute Ag : Beberapa saat yang lalu
At the moment : Sekarang ini
Farmerly : Dahulu, tadinya
In the past : Dimasa lalu
Last night : Tadi malam
Now : sekarang
Right now : sekarang ini juga
The other day : beberapa hari yang lalu, baru-baru ini
Tomorrow : besok
To nigh : malam ini
Yesterday : kemarin
Example
a. I met than a few days ago
b. They finished their work a few minute ago
c. I lived in bandung formerly
Kata-kata yang termasuk kedalam adverb of manner diantaranya adalah :
Best : terbaik yang paling baik
Better : makin baik, lebih sehat, lebih suka
Calmly : dengan tenang
Carefully : dengan hati-hati, dengan teliti
Carelesly : dengan sembarangan, gegabah,tanpa tanggung jawab
Early : pagi-pagi
Fast : cepat
Faster : lebih cepat
Grandually : secara berangsur-angsur
Hard : keras, lebat, dengan tajam
Harder : lebih keras, lebih telat, dan lebih tajam
Hurrledly : terburu-buru, tergopoh-gopoh
Late: terlambat
Well: baik, jauh, benar
Example
a. I am Felling better today
b. She is best language spanis in the class
c. He driver carefully every where
B. Adverb of place (keterangan tempat)
Kata-kata yang termasuk kedalam adverb of place diantaranya:
Above : Diatas
Abroad : Luar negri, dengan luas, tersiar, tersebar
Below : Dibawah, kebawah
Down town : Kota
Far : Jauh
Gance : Dari sini
Here : Disini
In side : Kedalam
Near : Keluar, diluar
Thence : Dari Sana
There : Disana, disitu, kesana
Example
a. She lives above tree
b. They go to abroad every year
c. We go to down town
C. adverb of definite time (keterangan waktu yang jelas)
Kata-kata yang termasuk kedalam adverb of definite time diantaranya :
A few days Ag : Beberapa hari yang lalu
A few minute Ag : Beberapa saat yang lalu
At the moment : Sekarang ini
Farmerly : Dahulu, tadinya
In the past : Dimasa lalu
Last night : Tadi malam
Now : sekarang
Right now : sekarang ini juga
The other day : beberapa hari yang lalu, baru-baru ini
Tomorrow : besok
To nigh : malam ini
Yesterday : kemarin
Example
a. I met than a few days ago
b. They finished their work a few minute ago
c. I lived in bandung formerly
EXPRESSION GIVING AND ASK FOR OPINION
Asking for opinion
1. What do you think for/if...
2. Do you think...
3. What's your opinion about...
4. What your idea about...
Giving for opinion
1. In myopinion abaut...
2. I think...
3. in myview...
4. I assume...
Example
What's your opinion about mrs.Dini?
In myopinion about mrs.Dini is beautiful, she is have high body and in studying she is very explicit. He student late go to school, she give a punishment which hard.
EXPRESSION OF LOVE & SADNES
The Expression of love :
I love son much
I love you, baby
I do care about you
I really care about you
I like you, honey
You are my love, sweetheart
My dear, I always think about you
The expression of sadness :
I am feeding so sad
I am really sad
Please make leaved me alone
It’s the sadness day in my live
You make me sad
AGREEMENT AND DISAGREEMENT
Merupakan untuk menunjukan sikap atau posisi seseorang penutur akan suatu masalah/pendapat/situasi.
Enquiring about (mencari tahu pendapat)
Wouldn't you agree ( that )...?
Wouldn't you say (that)...?
Don't you think (that)...?
Expressing agreement (menyatakan persetujuan)
I agree (with you)
You are right
That' right
I know
Absolutely
Defenetely
Expressing disagreement (menyatakan tidak persetujuan)
I disagree
I don't agree
I am not sure (about that)
I don't know (about that)
I am cann't agree
EXPRESSIONS OF ANGER/BE ANGER
go away:
I have you:
Shouth your mounth:
Example
X: I will go away because I'm anger some you
Y: I'm sorry, I must make you anger
CONDITIONAL
Pola conditional merupakan bentuk kalimat pengandaian dengan ciri hadirnya kata jika/apabila, yang umumnya dinyatakan dangan kata IF. Terdapat dua kategori besar pola pengandaian yakni : The real (factual dan nabiutral) dan unreal (centrary to the fact).
The real conditional yang lebih dikenal dengan istilah future conditional, merupakan pola lamunan yang menyatakan sesuatu memiliki peluang untuk terjadi bila syarat tertentu terpenuhi selanjutnya disebut conditional type 1.
Type unreal merupakan pola lamunan yang merupakan pengingkaran dari fakta sebenarnya akan terjadi atau sedang terjadi sekarang yang lebih dikenal dengan present conditional atau conditional type 2.
Dan kedua lamunan yang berkontradiksi dengan yang sebenarnya sudah terjadi yang lebih dikenal dengan past conditional atau conditional type 3.
1. Future Conditional (Conditional Type 1)
Pengandaian ini menyatakan sesuatu mungkin terjadi pada waktu mendatang atau sekarang, jika syarat atau kondisi tertentu terpenuhi. Conditional type 1 dibentuk oleh rangkaian simple present sebagai sub-clause dan simple future sebagai
main clause.
If + subject 1 + present + subject 2 + [will/can/may/must] + verb 1 (simple form)
Example
1. If you come with me for a jogride to night, you will have a great fun.
2. You must study hard, if you want to enter favorite university
"If" Pada pola diatas dapat dilesapkan / dihilangkan tanpa mengubah makna dengan mengubah structur polanya didalam bentuk inverse
Should + subject 1 + simple form + subject 2 + [will/can/may/must] + verb 1 (simple form)
Example
~ If you come with me for a jogride to night, you will have a gread fun
~ Should you want to enter favorite university, you must study hard
2. Present Conditional (Conditional Type 2)
Pengandaian ini menyatakan sesuatu yang bertentangan dengan apa yang ada / terjadi sekarang / belakangan ini.
If + subject 1 + simple past + subject 2 + [would / could / might] + verb 1 / be
Example
1. If I had time, I would go to the beach with you this week and
2. He would tell you about, it if he were here
"If" dengan menggunakan to be "were" pada pola diatas dapat dilesapkan / dihilangkan tanpa mengubah makna dengan mengubah structur polanya kedalam bentuk inversi.
Were +subject 1 + adjective + noun + subject 2 + [would / could / might] + verb / be
Example
~ Were I to have time, I would go to the beach with you this weekend
~ Were he here, he would tell you about it
3. Past Conditional (Conditional Type 3)
Pengandaian ini menyatakan sesuatu yang bertentangn dengan apa yang telah terjadi sesuatu yang sudah berlalu
If + subject 1 + past perfect + subject 2 + [would / could / might] + have + verb 3 / been
Example
1. If I had known you were there, I would have writen you a letter
2. If you had asked me I would, have told you the whole story
Bentuk inversi (tanpa menggunakan kata "if") untuk type ini adalah
Had + subject 1 + verb 3/been + subject 2 + [would/could/might] + have + verb 3/been
Example
~ Had I known you were there, I would have written you a letter
~ Had you asked me I would have told you the whole story
Example of Conditional
1. If I were in town, I would go
I do not were in town, pn i would not go
2. If I had known you were, I would come to have you.
I do not had known you were, so I would not came to have you.
SPOOF
Goal/purpose
Toretell/to tell funny story
The structures
Orientation : Pengenalan waktu,tokoh dan tempat.
Event : Kejadian.
Twist : Akhir yang tidak terduga atau lucu.
Keterangan
Dalam satu Sroof text, dapat terjadi beberapa event.
Example:
Tittel Penguin in the par
Orientation Once a man was walking in a park when he came a class a penguin.
Event 1
He took him to a policeman and said.” I have just Found this penguin what should ? Do?”
The policeman replied" take him to the zoo.
Event 2
The next day the policeman saw the some in the some park and the man was still carrying the penguin with him. The policeman was rather surprised and walked up to the man and asked. "Why are you still earring that penguin about ? Didn't you take it to the zoo" "I Certainly did" Repaired the man.
Twist
And it was great idea because he really enjoyed it so today I am taking him to the movies.
WOULD RATHER... (THAN), (WOULD) PREFER TO RATHER THAN PREFER SOME THINGT SOME THING.
'Would rather' mempunyai arti: Would prefer to ( lebih suka ).
Example
A- I would rather have ice cream than milk shake.
B- Would you rather have ice cream or milk shake?
C- I would prefer to have ice cream rather than milk shake
D- I would rather not have anything
E- Do you want to eat out? 'no I’d rather not'
F- I would prefer eat out rather than go/to go/going to the movies
Keterangan
1} Dalam kalimat Tanya kita menggunakan or untuk memperkenalkan suatu pilihan, sedangkan dalam kalimat pasif yang menggunakan would rather kita menggunakan than.
2} kita menggunakan rather than dengan would prefer + to invinitive.
3} Untuk kalimat negative. Kita menambahkan not setelah would rather/would prefer dan sebelum kata kerja utama sehingga kalimat
- I would rather not have ice cream
- I would prefer not to have ice cream
4} kita menggunakan
Would prefer + to infinitive + rather than + infinitive
Would prefer + to infinitive + rather than + to infinitive
would prefer + to infinitive + rather than +V ing(dalam contoh f diatas)
5} Kita mengatakan 'I’d rather not' sebagai jawaban pendek. kita menggunakan prefer dengan cara berikut
~ Prefer to + infinitive + rather than + infinitive/to infinitive/verb/ing
I prefer to swim rather than play/to play/playing basket ball
~ Prefer + verb + ing + to + verb + ing
I prefer swimming to playing basket ball
~ Prefer + verb + ing + rather than + verb + ing
I prefer swimming rather than playing basket ball
~ Prefer + something + to + something
I prefer tea to coffee
A} "Rather than" dalam kalimat diatas dapat diganti dengan instead of tetapi kata kerja yang mengikuti 'instead of' harus dalam bentuk Verb + ing
Example
I prefer to stay (at) home instead of going out
B} "rather than” dapat diikuti oleh infinitive, to infinitive atau verb + ing, tetapi penggunaannya lebih baik di sesuaikan dengan kata kerja sebelumnya
C} Jika kita lebih suka seseorang melakukan sesuatu kita menyatakannya dengan prefer : I prefer you to do it for me.
(Prefer + somebody + to + infinitive)
D} Dengan would rather (would rather + some body + the past form) - I'd rather you did it for me
- I'd rather you didn't smoke
1. What do you think for/if...
2. Do you think...
3. What's your opinion about...
4. What your idea about...
Giving for opinion
1. In myopinion abaut...
2. I think...
3. in myview...
4. I assume...
Example
What's your opinion about mrs.Dini?
In myopinion about mrs.Dini is beautiful, she is have high body and in studying she is very explicit. He student late go to school, she give a punishment which hard.
EXPRESSION OF LOVE & SADNES
The Expression of love :
I love son much
I love you, baby
I do care about you
I really care about you
I like you, honey
You are my love, sweetheart
My dear, I always think about you
The expression of sadness :
I am feeding so sad
I am really sad
Please make leaved me alone
It’s the sadness day in my live
You make me sad
AGREEMENT AND DISAGREEMENT
Merupakan untuk menunjukan sikap atau posisi seseorang penutur akan suatu masalah/pendapat/situasi.
Enquiring about (mencari tahu pendapat)
Wouldn't you agree ( that )...?
Wouldn't you say (that)...?
Don't you think (that)...?
Expressing agreement (menyatakan persetujuan)
I agree (with you)
You are right
That' right
I know
Absolutely
Defenetely
Expressing disagreement (menyatakan tidak persetujuan)
I disagree
I don't agree
I am not sure (about that)
I don't know (about that)
I am cann't agree
EXPRESSIONS OF ANGER/BE ANGER
go away:
I have you:
Shouth your mounth:
Example
X: I will go away because I'm anger some you
Y: I'm sorry, I must make you anger
CONDITIONAL
Pola conditional merupakan bentuk kalimat pengandaian dengan ciri hadirnya kata jika/apabila, yang umumnya dinyatakan dangan kata IF. Terdapat dua kategori besar pola pengandaian yakni : The real (factual dan nabiutral) dan unreal (centrary to the fact).
The real conditional yang lebih dikenal dengan istilah future conditional, merupakan pola lamunan yang menyatakan sesuatu memiliki peluang untuk terjadi bila syarat tertentu terpenuhi selanjutnya disebut conditional type 1.
Type unreal merupakan pola lamunan yang merupakan pengingkaran dari fakta sebenarnya akan terjadi atau sedang terjadi sekarang yang lebih dikenal dengan present conditional atau conditional type 2.
Dan kedua lamunan yang berkontradiksi dengan yang sebenarnya sudah terjadi yang lebih dikenal dengan past conditional atau conditional type 3.
1. Future Conditional (Conditional Type 1)
Pengandaian ini menyatakan sesuatu mungkin terjadi pada waktu mendatang atau sekarang, jika syarat atau kondisi tertentu terpenuhi. Conditional type 1 dibentuk oleh rangkaian simple present sebagai sub-clause dan simple future sebagai
main clause.
If + subject 1 + present + subject 2 + [will/can/may/must] + verb 1 (simple form)
Example
1. If you come with me for a jogride to night, you will have a great fun.
2. You must study hard, if you want to enter favorite university
"If" Pada pola diatas dapat dilesapkan / dihilangkan tanpa mengubah makna dengan mengubah structur polanya didalam bentuk inverse
Should + subject 1 + simple form + subject 2 + [will/can/may/must] + verb 1 (simple form)
Example
~ If you come with me for a jogride to night, you will have a gread fun
~ Should you want to enter favorite university, you must study hard
2. Present Conditional (Conditional Type 2)
Pengandaian ini menyatakan sesuatu yang bertentangan dengan apa yang ada / terjadi sekarang / belakangan ini.
If + subject 1 + simple past + subject 2 + [would / could / might] + verb 1 / be
Example
1. If I had time, I would go to the beach with you this week and
2. He would tell you about, it if he were here
"If" dengan menggunakan to be "were" pada pola diatas dapat dilesapkan / dihilangkan tanpa mengubah makna dengan mengubah structur polanya kedalam bentuk inversi.
Were +subject 1 + adjective + noun + subject 2 + [would / could / might] + verb / be
Example
~ Were I to have time, I would go to the beach with you this weekend
~ Were he here, he would tell you about it
3. Past Conditional (Conditional Type 3)
Pengandaian ini menyatakan sesuatu yang bertentangn dengan apa yang telah terjadi sesuatu yang sudah berlalu
If + subject 1 + past perfect + subject 2 + [would / could / might] + have + verb 3 / been
Example
1. If I had known you were there, I would have writen you a letter
2. If you had asked me I would, have told you the whole story
Bentuk inversi (tanpa menggunakan kata "if") untuk type ini adalah
Had + subject 1 + verb 3/been + subject 2 + [would/could/might] + have + verb 3/been
Example
~ Had I known you were there, I would have written you a letter
~ Had you asked me I would have told you the whole story
Example of Conditional
1. If I were in town, I would go
I do not were in town, pn i would not go
2. If I had known you were, I would come to have you.
I do not had known you were, so I would not came to have you.
SPOOF
Goal/purpose
Toretell/to tell funny story
The structures
Orientation : Pengenalan waktu,tokoh dan tempat.
Event : Kejadian.
Twist : Akhir yang tidak terduga atau lucu.
Keterangan
Dalam satu Sroof text, dapat terjadi beberapa event.
Example:
Tittel Penguin in the par
Orientation Once a man was walking in a park when he came a class a penguin.
Event 1
He took him to a policeman and said.” I have just Found this penguin what should ? Do?”
The policeman replied" take him to the zoo.
Event 2
The next day the policeman saw the some in the some park and the man was still carrying the penguin with him. The policeman was rather surprised and walked up to the man and asked. "Why are you still earring that penguin about ? Didn't you take it to the zoo" "I Certainly did" Repaired the man.
Twist
And it was great idea because he really enjoyed it so today I am taking him to the movies.
WOULD RATHER... (THAN), (WOULD) PREFER TO RATHER THAN PREFER SOME THINGT SOME THING.
'Would rather' mempunyai arti: Would prefer to ( lebih suka ).
Example
A- I would rather have ice cream than milk shake.
B- Would you rather have ice cream or milk shake?
C- I would prefer to have ice cream rather than milk shake
D- I would rather not have anything
E- Do you want to eat out? 'no I’d rather not'
F- I would prefer eat out rather than go/to go/going to the movies
Keterangan
1} Dalam kalimat Tanya kita menggunakan or untuk memperkenalkan suatu pilihan, sedangkan dalam kalimat pasif yang menggunakan would rather kita menggunakan than.
2} kita menggunakan rather than dengan would prefer + to invinitive.
3} Untuk kalimat negative. Kita menambahkan not setelah would rather/would prefer dan sebelum kata kerja utama sehingga kalimat
- I would rather not have ice cream
- I would prefer not to have ice cream
4} kita menggunakan
Would prefer + to infinitive + rather than + infinitive
Would prefer + to infinitive + rather than + to infinitive
would prefer + to infinitive + rather than +V ing(dalam contoh f diatas)
5} Kita mengatakan 'I’d rather not' sebagai jawaban pendek. kita menggunakan prefer dengan cara berikut
~ Prefer to + infinitive + rather than + infinitive/to infinitive/verb/ing
I prefer to swim rather than play/to play/playing basket ball
~ Prefer + verb + ing + to + verb + ing
I prefer swimming to playing basket ball
~ Prefer + verb + ing + rather than + verb + ing
I prefer swimming rather than playing basket ball
~ Prefer + something + to + something
I prefer tea to coffee
A} "Rather than" dalam kalimat diatas dapat diganti dengan instead of tetapi kata kerja yang mengikuti 'instead of' harus dalam bentuk Verb + ing
Example
I prefer to stay (at) home instead of going out
B} "rather than” dapat diikuti oleh infinitive, to infinitive atau verb + ing, tetapi penggunaannya lebih baik di sesuaikan dengan kata kerja sebelumnya
C} Jika kita lebih suka seseorang melakukan sesuatu kita menyatakannya dengan prefer : I prefer you to do it for me.
(Prefer + somebody + to + infinitive)
D} Dengan would rather (would rather + some body + the past form) - I'd rather you did it for me
- I'd rather you didn't smoke
Hortatory Exposition
Text Hortatory Exposition bertujuan untuk menyodorkan pandangan/ide/opini/pendapat untuk mempengaruhi/membujuk pembaca untuk memiliki sikap pro-kontra terhadap sesuatu dan atau mengajak pembaca untuk melakukan sesuatu. Hortatory Exposition juga dikenal dengan istilah Persuasive
Generic structure of hortatory Exposition
Thesis : pernyataan pendapat penulis akan suatu kasus/fenomena atau issue hal yang dipersoalkan
Argument : alasan mengapa ada keprihatinan dan pengaruh pada saran atau rekomendasi
Re-Commendation : pernyataan tentang bagai mana seharusnya atau tidak seharusnya sesuatu ada atau dilakukan.
Unsur Kebahasaan Text Hortatory Exposition
Abstract noun misalnya polisi, government
Jargon misalnya species, mammal
Modals misalnya must, should
Bahasa evaluatif misalnya important, valuable
Kalimat passive
Thinking verb misalnya I believe, I think
Example
Analytical Exposition
Thesis
In Australia there are three levels of government, the federal government. All of there levels of government are necessary. This is so for a number of reasons.
Argument
First, the federal government is necessary for the big things. They keep the economy in order and look after things like defense. Similarly, the state governments look after the middle-sized things. For example they look after low and order, preventing things like vandalism in schools. Finally, local governments look after the small things. They look after things like collecting rubbish, otherwise everyone would have diseases.
Reiteration
Thus, for the reasons above we can conclude that the three levels of government are necessary.
Hortatory Exposition
Thesis In all the discussion over he removal of lead from petrol (and the atmosphere) there doesn't teem to have been any mention of the difference between driving in the city and the country.
Argument While I realize my leaded petrol car is polluting the air wherever I drive, I feel that when you travel through the county, where you only see another car very five to ten minutes, the problem is not as severe as when traffic is concentrated on city roads.
Those who want to penalize older, leaded petrol vehicles and their owners don't seen to appreciate that, in the country, there is no public transport to fall back upon and one's own vehicle is the only way to get about.
Re-commendation I feel that country people, who often have to travel huge distances to the nearest town and who already spend a spec deal of money on petrol, should be treated differently to the people who live.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE (KATA SIFAT)
1. Who : Bersifat kata orang {she, he}
2. Whom : Bersifat kata orang {me, you, her, him, than, us, it}
3. Whose : Bersifat kata orang {her, his, my, your, our, their, its}
4. Which : Bersifat kata benda {me, you, her, their, us, it}
Example
Who
I thanked the woman. She helped me
I thanked the woman. Who helped me
Whom
The man was Mr. Jones. I saw him
The man whom was Mr. Jones I raw
the people were very nice. We visited than yesterday
the people were very nice. Whom we visited yesterday
Whose
I apologized the woman. I spelled her coffee
I apologized the woman Whose I spelled coffee
I know the man His bicycle was stolen
I know the man Whose bicycle was stolen
Which
the book was good. I red it
the book which I red was good
the move wasn't very good. We say it last night
the move wasn't very good which we say last night.
Generic structure of hortatory Exposition
Thesis : pernyataan pendapat penulis akan suatu kasus/fenomena atau issue hal yang dipersoalkan
Argument : alasan mengapa ada keprihatinan dan pengaruh pada saran atau rekomendasi
Re-Commendation : pernyataan tentang bagai mana seharusnya atau tidak seharusnya sesuatu ada atau dilakukan.
Unsur Kebahasaan Text Hortatory Exposition
Abstract noun misalnya polisi, government
Jargon misalnya species, mammal
Modals misalnya must, should
Bahasa evaluatif misalnya important, valuable
Kalimat passive
Thinking verb misalnya I believe, I think
Example
Analytical Exposition
Thesis
In Australia there are three levels of government, the federal government. All of there levels of government are necessary. This is so for a number of reasons.
Argument
First, the federal government is necessary for the big things. They keep the economy in order and look after things like defense. Similarly, the state governments look after the middle-sized things. For example they look after low and order, preventing things like vandalism in schools. Finally, local governments look after the small things. They look after things like collecting rubbish, otherwise everyone would have diseases.
Reiteration
Thus, for the reasons above we can conclude that the three levels of government are necessary.
Hortatory Exposition
Thesis In all the discussion over he removal of lead from petrol (and the atmosphere) there doesn't teem to have been any mention of the difference between driving in the city and the country.
Argument While I realize my leaded petrol car is polluting the air wherever I drive, I feel that when you travel through the county, where you only see another car very five to ten minutes, the problem is not as severe as when traffic is concentrated on city roads.
Those who want to penalize older, leaded petrol vehicles and their owners don't seen to appreciate that, in the country, there is no public transport to fall back upon and one's own vehicle is the only way to get about.
Re-commendation I feel that country people, who often have to travel huge distances to the nearest town and who already spend a spec deal of money on petrol, should be treated differently to the people who live.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE (KATA SIFAT)
1. Who : Bersifat kata orang {she, he}
2. Whom : Bersifat kata orang {me, you, her, him, than, us, it}
3. Whose : Bersifat kata orang {her, his, my, your, our, their, its}
4. Which : Bersifat kata benda {me, you, her, their, us, it}
Example
Who
I thanked the woman. She helped me
I thanked the woman. Who helped me
Whom
The man was Mr. Jones. I saw him
The man whom was Mr. Jones I raw
the people were very nice. We visited than yesterday
the people were very nice. Whom we visited yesterday
Whose
I apologized the woman. I spelled her coffee
I apologized the woman Whose I spelled coffee
I know the man His bicycle was stolen
I know the man Whose bicycle was stolen
Which
the book was good. I red it
the book which I red was good
the move wasn't very good. We say it last night
the move wasn't very good which we say last night.
ANALYTICAL
Text Exposition bertujuan untuk menyodorkan pendapat/ide/pendapat/argumen penulis akan suatu perkara/topik/permasalahan/fenomena. Terdapat dua fariasi dalam Text Exposition.
1. Analytical Exposition
Dalam Analytical Exposition penulis menyodorkan pandangan/ide/opini/pendapat. Suatu topik atau fenomena atau masalah perjudapat perhatian, ulasan atau penjelasan atau uraian atau data penguat. Tanpa dimunculkannya usaha untuk mempengaruhi/membujuk pembaca untuk memiliki sikap pro-kontra terhadap sesuatu. Analytical Exposition juga dikenal dengan istilah Argumentative.
Generic structure of Analytical Exposition
Thesis : Pernyataan pendapat penulis akan sesuatu kasus/fenomena
Argument : Terdiri dari poin atau inti masalah/perbandingan atau hal yang menjadi concern dan elaboration. Penjelasan atau pemaparan dari point.
Reiteration : Penguatan pernyataan
Unsur Kebahasaan yang digunakan Text Analytical Exposition
General noun misilnya pollution, car
Abstract noun misalnya policy, government
Jargon misalnya species, mammal
Modals misalnya must, should
Bahasa evaluative misalnya important, valuable
Kalimat passive
1. Analytical Exposition
Dalam Analytical Exposition penulis menyodorkan pandangan/ide/opini/pendapat. Suatu topik atau fenomena atau masalah perjudapat perhatian, ulasan atau penjelasan atau uraian atau data penguat. Tanpa dimunculkannya usaha untuk mempengaruhi/membujuk pembaca untuk memiliki sikap pro-kontra terhadap sesuatu. Analytical Exposition juga dikenal dengan istilah Argumentative.
Generic structure of Analytical Exposition
Thesis : Pernyataan pendapat penulis akan sesuatu kasus/fenomena
Argument : Terdiri dari poin atau inti masalah/perbandingan atau hal yang menjadi concern dan elaboration. Penjelasan atau pemaparan dari point.
Reiteration : Penguatan pernyataan
Unsur Kebahasaan yang digunakan Text Analytical Exposition
General noun misilnya pollution, car
Abstract noun misalnya policy, government
Jargon misalnya species, mammal
Modals misalnya must, should
Bahasa evaluative misalnya important, valuable
Kalimat passive
Grammatical feature
Text Report menguras suatu hasil pengamatan, penelaahan, penelitian, observasi, atau studi tentang benda, binatang, orang, atau tempat participant pada Report cendrung general. Data yang tersaji umumnya berupa simpulan umum akan karakteristik, ciri dan atau keberadaan dan keadaan participant.
Tujuan text Report adalah untuk menggambarkan participant apa adanya bila yang di bicarakan suatu benda. Text Report lebih menyoroti fungsi dari benda tersebut
Text Repot lazimnya menyodorkan suatu generalisasi akan participant yang di ulas, generalisasi ini umumnya di dapat lewat membandingkan yang satu dengan yang lain yang tergolong participant yang sejenis.
Structure of Text Report
General Classification : Pernyataan umum yang menerangkan subjek laporan, keterangan dan klarifikasinya
Description : Penginformasian Ciri-ciri umum/generalisasi yang dimiliki subjek misalnya sifat, pesikologis, prilaku, tampilan fisik, fitur khas, kualitas dan sejenisnya
Grammatical Feature
a. focus on Generic Participants
b. use of relational processes to state what is and what which it is
c. use a simple past tense
d. no temporal sequences
Example
Title Different Types of Sea Mammals
General classification
Seals, sea lion and walruses live both on land and in the sea. When on dry land or on ice, They are every clumsy in their movements. But in the water they swim gracefully. They all leave the water for land or ice fields to give birth to their young.
Description The dolphins are larger. These animals are mainly fish eaters. Experiments show that dolphins are intelligent and can communicate with each other. They can be trained to perform various kinds of tricks and acts.
The highly intelligent killer where whale belongs to the dolphins family. Despite of its scary name, it has never been heard to attack human.
Tujuan text Report adalah untuk menggambarkan participant apa adanya bila yang di bicarakan suatu benda. Text Report lebih menyoroti fungsi dari benda tersebut
Text Repot lazimnya menyodorkan suatu generalisasi akan participant yang di ulas, generalisasi ini umumnya di dapat lewat membandingkan yang satu dengan yang lain yang tergolong participant yang sejenis.
Structure of Text Report
General Classification : Pernyataan umum yang menerangkan subjek laporan, keterangan dan klarifikasinya
Description : Penginformasian Ciri-ciri umum/generalisasi yang dimiliki subjek misalnya sifat, pesikologis, prilaku, tampilan fisik, fitur khas, kualitas dan sejenisnya
Grammatical Feature
a. focus on Generic Participants
b. use of relational processes to state what is and what which it is
c. use a simple past tense
d. no temporal sequences
Example
Title Different Types of Sea Mammals
General classification
Seals, sea lion and walruses live both on land and in the sea. When on dry land or on ice, They are every clumsy in their movements. But in the water they swim gracefully. They all leave the water for land or ice fields to give birth to their young.
Description The dolphins are larger. These animals are mainly fish eaters. Experiments show that dolphins are intelligent and can communicate with each other. They can be trained to perform various kinds of tricks and acts.
The highly intelligent killer where whale belongs to the dolphins family. Despite of its scary name, it has never been heard to attack human.
Jumat, 25 Maret 2011
passive voice
Passive Voice
What this handout is about
This handout will help you understand what the passive voice is, why many professors and writing instructors frown upon it, and how you can revise your paper to achieve greater clarity. Some things here may surprise you. We hope this handout will help you to understand the passive voice and allow you to make more informed choices as you write.
Myths
So what is the passive voice? First, let's be clear on what the passive voice isn't. Below, we'll list some common myths about the passive voice:
1. Use of the passive voice constitutes a grammatical error.
Use of the passive voice is not a grammatical error. It's a stylistic issue that pertains to clarity—that is, there are times when using the passive voice can prevent a reader from understanding what you mean.
2. Any use of "to be" (in any form) constitutes the passive voice.
The passive voice entails more than just using a being verb. Using "to be" can weaken the impact of your writing, but it is occasionally necessary and does not by itself constitute the passive voice.
3. The passive voice always avoids the first person; if something is in first person ("I" or "we") it's also in the active voice.
On the contrary, you can very easily use the passive voice in the first person. Here's an example: "I was hit by the dodgeball."
4. You should never use the passive voice.
While the passive voice can weaken the clarity of your writing, there are times when the passive voice is OK and even preferable.
5. I can rely on my grammar checker to catch the passive voice.
See Myth #1. Since the passive voice isn't a grammar error, it's not always caught. Typically, grammar checkers catch only a fraction of passive voice usage.
Do any of these misunderstandings sound familiar? If so, you're not alone. That's why we wrote this handout. It discusses how to recognize the passive voice, when you should avoid it, and when it's OK.
top
Defining the passive voice
A passive construction occurs when you make the object of an action into the subject of a sentence. That is, whoever or whatever is performing the action is not the grammatical subject of the sentence. Take a look at this passive rephrasing of a familiar joke:
Why was the road crossed by the chicken?
Who is doing the action in this sentence? The chicken is the one doing the action in this sentence, but the chicken is not in the spot where you would expect the grammatical subject to be. Instead, the road is the grammatical subject. The more familiar phrasing (why did the chicken cross the road?) puts the actor in the subject position, the position of doing something—the chicken (the actor/doer) crosses the road (the object). We use active verbs to represent that "doing," whether it be crossing roads, proposing ideas, making arguments, or invading houses (more on that shortly).
Once you know what to look for, passive constructions are easy to spot. Look for a form of "to be" (is, are, am , was, were, has been, have been, had been, will be, will have been, being) followed by a past participle. (The past participle is a form of the verb that typically, but not always, ends in "-ed." Some exceptions to the "-ed" rule are words like "paid" (not "payed") and "driven." (not "drived"). Here's a sure-fire formula for identifying the passive voice:
form of "to be" + past participle = passive voice
For example:
The metropolis has been scorched by the dragon's fiery breath.
When her house was invaded, Penelope had to think of ways to delay her remarriage.
Not every sentence that contains a form of "have" or "be" is passive! Forms of the word "have" can do several different things in English. For example, in the sentence "John has to study all afternoon," "has" is not part of a past-tense verb. It's a modal verb, like "must," "can," or "may"—these verbs tell how necessary it is to do something (compare "I have to study" versus "I may study"). And forms of "be" are not always passive, either—"be" can be the main verb of a sentence that describes a state of being, rather than an action. For example, the sentence "John is a good student" is not passive; "is" is simply describing John's state of being. The moral of the story: don't assume that any time you see a form of "have" and a form of "to be" together, you are looking at a passive sentence.
Need more help deciding whether a sentence is passive? Ask yourself whether there is an action going on in the sentence. If so, what is at the front of the sentence? Is it the person or thing that does the action? Or is it the person or thing that has the action done to it? In a passive sentence, the object of the action will be in the subject position at the front of the sentence. As discussed above, the sentence will also contain a form of be and a past participle. If the subject appears at all, it will usually be at the end of the sentence, often in a phrase that starts with "by." Take a look at this example:
The fish was caught by the seagull.
If we ask ourselves whether there's an action, the answer is yes: a fish is being caught. If we ask what's at the front of the sentece, the actor or the object of the action, it's the object: the fish, unfortunately for it, got caught, and there it is at the front of the sentence. The thing that did the catching—the seagull—is at the end, after "by." There's a form of be (was) and a past participle (caught). This sentence is passive.
Let's briefly look at how to change passive constructions into active ones. You can usually just switch the word order, making the actor and subject one by putting the actor up front:
The metropolis has been scorched by the dragon's fiery breath.
becomes
The dragon scorched the metropolis with his fiery breath.
When her house was invaded, Penelope had to think of ways to delay her remarriage.
becomes
After suitors invaded her house, Penelope had to think of ways to delay her remarriage.
To repeat, the key to identifying the passive voice is to look for both a form of "to be" and a past participle, which usually, but not always, ends in "-ed."
top
Clarity and meaning
The primary reason why your instructors frown on the passive voice is that they often have to guess what you mean. Sometimes, the confusion is minor. Let's look again at that sentence from a student's paper on Homer's The Odyssey:
When her house was invaded, Penelope had to think of ways to delay her remarriage.
Like many passive constructions, this sentence lacks explicit reference to the actor—it doesn't tell the reader who or what invaded Penelope's house. The active voice clarifies things:
After suitors invaded Penelope's house, she had to think of ways to fend them off.
Thus many instructors—the readers making sense of your writing—prefer that you use the active voice. They want you to specify who or what is doing the action. Compare the following two examples from an anthropology paper on a Laotian village to see if you agree.
(passive) A new system of drug control laws was set up. (By whom?)
(active) The Lao People's Revolutionary Party set up a new system of drug control laws.
Here's another example, from the same paper, that illustrates the lack of precision that can accompany the passive voice:
Gender training was conducted in six villages, thus affecting social relationships.
And a few pages later:
Plus, marketing links were being established.
In both paragraphs, the writer never specifies the actors for those two actions (Who did the gender training? Who established marketing links?). Thus the reader has trouble appreciating the dynamics of these social interactions, which depend upon the actors conducting and establishing these things.
The following example, once again from that paper on The Odyssey, typifies another instance where an instructor might desire more precision and clarity:
Although Penelope shares heroic characteristics with her husband, Odysseus, she
is not considered a hero.
Who does not consider Penelope a hero? It's difficult to tell, but the rest of that paragraph suggests that the student does not consider Penelope a hero (the topic of the paper). The reader might also conceivably think that the student is referring to critics, scholars, or modern readers of The Odyssey. One might argue that the meaning comes through here—the problem is merely stylistic. Yet style affects how your reader understands your argument and content. Awkward or unclear style prevents your reader from appreciating the ideas that are so clear to you when you write. Thus knowing how your reader might react enables you to make more effective choices when you revise. So after you identify instances of the passive, you should consider whether your use of the passive inhibits clear understanding of what you mean.
top
Summarizing history or literary plots with the passive voice: don't be a lazy thinker or writer!
With the previous section in mind, you should also know that some instructors proclaim that the passive voice signals sloppy, lazy thinking. These instructors argue that writers who overuse the passive voice have not fully thought through what they are discussing and that this makes for imprecise arguments. Consider these sentences from papers on American history:
The working class was marginalized.
African Americans were discriminated against.
Women were not treated as equals.
Such sentences lack the precision and connection to context and causes that mark rigorous thinking. The reader learns little about the systems, conditions, human decisions, and contradictions that produced these groups' experiences of oppression. And so the reader—the instructor—questions the writer's understanding of these things.
It is especially important to be sure that your thesis statement is clear and precise, so think twice before using the passive voice in your thesis.
In papers where you discuss the work of an author—e.g., a historian or writer of literature—you can also strengthen your writing by not relying on the passive as a crutch when summarizing plots or arguments. Instead of writing
It is argued that…
or Tom and Huck are portrayed as…
or And then the link between X and Y is made, showing that…
you can heighten the level of your analysis by explicitly connecting an author with these statements:
Anderson argues that…
Twain portrays Tom and Huck as…
Ishiguro draws a link between X and Y to show that…
By avoiding passive constructions in these situations, you can demonstrate a more thorough understanding of the material you discuss.
top
Scientific writing
All this advice works for papers in the humanities, you might note—but what about technical or scientific papers, including lab reports? Many instructors recommend or even require the passive voice in such writing. The rationale for using the passive voice in scientific writing is that it achieves "an objective tone"—for example, by avoiding the first person. To consider scientific writing, let's break it up into two main types: lab reports and writing about a scientific topic or literature.
Lab reports
Although more and more scientific journals accept or even prefer first-person active voice (e.g., "then we sequenced the human genome"), some of your instructors may want you to remove yourself from your lab report by using the passive voice (e.g., "then the human genome was sequenced" rather than "then we sequenced the human genome"). Such advice particularly applies to the section on Materials and Methods, where a procedure "is followed." (For a fuller discussion on writing lab reports, see our handout on writing lab reports.)
While you might employ the passive voice to retain objectivity, you can still use active constructions in some instances and retain your objective stance. Thus it's useful to keep in mind the sort of active verbs you might use in lab reports. Examples include: support, indicate, suggest, correspond, challenge, yield, show.
Thus instead of writing
A number of things are indicated by these results.
you could write
These results indicate a number of things.
or Further analysis showed/suggested/yielded…
Ultimately, you should find out your instructor's preference regarding your use of the passive in lab reports.
Writing about scientific topics
In some assignments, rather than reporting the results of your own scientific work, you will be writing about the work of other scientists. Such assignments might include literature reviews and research reports on scientific topics. You have two main possible tasks in these assignments: reporting what other people have done (their research or experiments) or indicating general scientific knowledge (the body of knowledge coming out of others' research). Often the two go together. In both instances, you can easily use active constructions even though you might be tempted by the passive—especially if you're used to writing your own lab reports in the passive.
You decide: Which of these two examples is clearer?
Heart disease is considered the leading cause of death in the United States. (passive)
or Research points to heart disease as the leading cause of death in the United States.(active)
Alternatively, you could write this sentence with human actors:
Researchers have concluded that heart disease is the leading cause of death in the United States.
The last two sentences illustrate a relationship that the first one lacks. The first example does not tell who or what leads us to accept this conclusion about heart disease.
Here's one last example from a report that describes angioplasty. Which sounds better to you?
The balloon is positioned in an area of blockage and is inflated.
or The surgeon positions the balloon in an area of blockage and inflates it.
You can improve your scientific writing by relying less on the passive. The advice we've given for papers on history or literature equally applies to papers in more "scientific" courses. No matter what field you're writing in, when you use the passive voice, you risk conveying to your reader a sense of uncertainty and imprecision regarding your writing and thinking. The key is to know when your instructor wants you to use the passive voice. For a more general discussion of writing in the sciences, see our handout.
top
"Swindles and perversions"
Before we discuss a few instances when the passive might be preferable, we should mention one of the more political uses of the passive: to hide blame or obscure responsibility. You wouldn't do this, but you can learn how to become a critic of those who exhibit what George Orwell included among the "swindles and perversions" of writing. For example:
Mistakes were made.
The Exxon Company accepts that a few gallons might have been spilled.
By becoming critically aware of how others use language to shape clarity and meaning, you can learn how better to revise your own work. Keep Orwell's swindles and perversions in mind as you read other writers. Because it's easy to leave the actor out of passive sentences, some people use the passive voice to avoid mentioning who is responsible for certain actions.
top
So when is it OK to use the passive?
Sometimes the passive voice is the best choice. Here are a few instances when the passive voice is quite useful:
1. To emphasize an object.Take a look at this example:
100 votes are required to pass the bill.
This passive sentence emphasizes the number of votes required. An active version of the sentence ("The bill requires 100 votes to pass") would put the emphasis on the bill, which may be less dramatic.
2. To de-emphasize an unknown subject/actor. Consider this example:
Over 120 different contaminants have been dumped into the river.
If you don't know who the actor is—in this case, if you don't actually know who dumped all of those contaminants in the river—then you may need to write in the passive. But remember, if you do know the actor, and if the clarity and meaning of your writing would benefit from indicating him/her/it/them, then use an active construction. Yet consider the third case.
3. If your readers don't need to know who's responsible for the action.
Here's where your choice can be difficult; some instances are less clear than others. Try to put yourself in your reader's position to anticipate how he/she will react to the way you have phrased your thoughts. Here are two examples:
Baby Sophia was delivered at 3:30 a.m. yesterday.(passive)
and
Dr. Susan Jones delivered baby Sophia at 3:30 a.m. yesterday.(active)
The first sentence might be more appropriate in a birth announcement sent to family and friends—they are not likely to know Dr. Jones and are much more interested in the "object"(the baby) than in the actor (the doctor). A hospital report of yesterday's events might be more likely to focus on Dr. Jones' role.
top
Summary of strategies
Identify
* Look for the passive voice: "to be" + a past participle (usually, but not always, ending in "-ed")
* If you don't see both components, move on.
* Does the sentence describe an action? If so, where is the actor? Is he/she/it in the grammatical subject position (at the front of the sentence) or in the object position (at the end of the sentence, or missing entirely)?
* Does the sentence end with "by..."? Many passive sentences include the actor at the end of the sentence in a "by" phrase, like "The ball was hit by the player" or "The shoe was chewed up by the dog." "By" by itself isn't a conclusive sign of the passive voice, but it can prompt you to take a closer look.
Evaluate
* Is the doer/actor indicated? Should you indicate him/her/it?
* Does it really matter who's responsible for the action?
* Would your reader ask you to clarify a sentence because of an issue related to your use of the passive?
* Do you use a passive construction in your thesis statement?
* Do you use the passive as a crutch in summarizing a plot or history, or in describing something?
* Do you want to emphasize the object?
Revise
* If you decide that your sentence would be clearer in the active voice, switch the sentence around to make the subject and actor one. Put the actor (the one doing the action of the sentence) in front of the verb.
top
Towards active thinking and writing
We encourage you to keep these tips in mind as you revise. While you may be able to employ this advice as you write your first draft, that's not necessarily always possible. In writing, clarity often comes when you revise, not on your first try. Don't worry about the passive if that stress inhibits you in getting your ideas down on paper. But do look for it when you revise. Actively make choices about its proper place in your writing. There is nothing grammatically or otherwise "wrong" about using the passive voice. The key is to recognize when you should, when you shouldn't, and when your instructor just doesn't want you to. These choices are yours. We hope this handout helps you to make them.
top
Works consulted and suggested reading
We consulted these works while writing the original version of this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout's topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find the latest publications on this topic. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial.
What this handout is about
This handout will help you understand what the passive voice is, why many professors and writing instructors frown upon it, and how you can revise your paper to achieve greater clarity. Some things here may surprise you. We hope this handout will help you to understand the passive voice and allow you to make more informed choices as you write.
Myths
So what is the passive voice? First, let's be clear on what the passive voice isn't. Below, we'll list some common myths about the passive voice:
1. Use of the passive voice constitutes a grammatical error.
Use of the passive voice is not a grammatical error. It's a stylistic issue that pertains to clarity—that is, there are times when using the passive voice can prevent a reader from understanding what you mean.
2. Any use of "to be" (in any form) constitutes the passive voice.
The passive voice entails more than just using a being verb. Using "to be" can weaken the impact of your writing, but it is occasionally necessary and does not by itself constitute the passive voice.
3. The passive voice always avoids the first person; if something is in first person ("I" or "we") it's also in the active voice.
On the contrary, you can very easily use the passive voice in the first person. Here's an example: "I was hit by the dodgeball."
4. You should never use the passive voice.
While the passive voice can weaken the clarity of your writing, there are times when the passive voice is OK and even preferable.
5. I can rely on my grammar checker to catch the passive voice.
See Myth #1. Since the passive voice isn't a grammar error, it's not always caught. Typically, grammar checkers catch only a fraction of passive voice usage.
Do any of these misunderstandings sound familiar? If so, you're not alone. That's why we wrote this handout. It discusses how to recognize the passive voice, when you should avoid it, and when it's OK.
top
Defining the passive voice
A passive construction occurs when you make the object of an action into the subject of a sentence. That is, whoever or whatever is performing the action is not the grammatical subject of the sentence. Take a look at this passive rephrasing of a familiar joke:
Why was the road crossed by the chicken?
Who is doing the action in this sentence? The chicken is the one doing the action in this sentence, but the chicken is not in the spot where you would expect the grammatical subject to be. Instead, the road is the grammatical subject. The more familiar phrasing (why did the chicken cross the road?) puts the actor in the subject position, the position of doing something—the chicken (the actor/doer) crosses the road (the object). We use active verbs to represent that "doing," whether it be crossing roads, proposing ideas, making arguments, or invading houses (more on that shortly).
Once you know what to look for, passive constructions are easy to spot. Look for a form of "to be" (is, are, am , was, were, has been, have been, had been, will be, will have been, being) followed by a past participle. (The past participle is a form of the verb that typically, but not always, ends in "-ed." Some exceptions to the "-ed" rule are words like "paid" (not "payed") and "driven." (not "drived"). Here's a sure-fire formula for identifying the passive voice:
form of "to be" + past participle = passive voice
For example:
The metropolis has been scorched by the dragon's fiery breath.
When her house was invaded, Penelope had to think of ways to delay her remarriage.
Not every sentence that contains a form of "have" or "be" is passive! Forms of the word "have" can do several different things in English. For example, in the sentence "John has to study all afternoon," "has" is not part of a past-tense verb. It's a modal verb, like "must," "can," or "may"—these verbs tell how necessary it is to do something (compare "I have to study" versus "I may study"). And forms of "be" are not always passive, either—"be" can be the main verb of a sentence that describes a state of being, rather than an action. For example, the sentence "John is a good student" is not passive; "is" is simply describing John's state of being. The moral of the story: don't assume that any time you see a form of "have" and a form of "to be" together, you are looking at a passive sentence.
Need more help deciding whether a sentence is passive? Ask yourself whether there is an action going on in the sentence. If so, what is at the front of the sentence? Is it the person or thing that does the action? Or is it the person or thing that has the action done to it? In a passive sentence, the object of the action will be in the subject position at the front of the sentence. As discussed above, the sentence will also contain a form of be and a past participle. If the subject appears at all, it will usually be at the end of the sentence, often in a phrase that starts with "by." Take a look at this example:
The fish was caught by the seagull.
If we ask ourselves whether there's an action, the answer is yes: a fish is being caught. If we ask what's at the front of the sentece, the actor or the object of the action, it's the object: the fish, unfortunately for it, got caught, and there it is at the front of the sentence. The thing that did the catching—the seagull—is at the end, after "by." There's a form of be (was) and a past participle (caught). This sentence is passive.
Let's briefly look at how to change passive constructions into active ones. You can usually just switch the word order, making the actor and subject one by putting the actor up front:
The metropolis has been scorched by the dragon's fiery breath.
becomes
The dragon scorched the metropolis with his fiery breath.
When her house was invaded, Penelope had to think of ways to delay her remarriage.
becomes
After suitors invaded her house, Penelope had to think of ways to delay her remarriage.
To repeat, the key to identifying the passive voice is to look for both a form of "to be" and a past participle, which usually, but not always, ends in "-ed."
top
Clarity and meaning
The primary reason why your instructors frown on the passive voice is that they often have to guess what you mean. Sometimes, the confusion is minor. Let's look again at that sentence from a student's paper on Homer's The Odyssey:
When her house was invaded, Penelope had to think of ways to delay her remarriage.
Like many passive constructions, this sentence lacks explicit reference to the actor—it doesn't tell the reader who or what invaded Penelope's house. The active voice clarifies things:
After suitors invaded Penelope's house, she had to think of ways to fend them off.
Thus many instructors—the readers making sense of your writing—prefer that you use the active voice. They want you to specify who or what is doing the action. Compare the following two examples from an anthropology paper on a Laotian village to see if you agree.
(passive) A new system of drug control laws was set up. (By whom?)
(active) The Lao People's Revolutionary Party set up a new system of drug control laws.
Here's another example, from the same paper, that illustrates the lack of precision that can accompany the passive voice:
Gender training was conducted in six villages, thus affecting social relationships.
And a few pages later:
Plus, marketing links were being established.
In both paragraphs, the writer never specifies the actors for those two actions (Who did the gender training? Who established marketing links?). Thus the reader has trouble appreciating the dynamics of these social interactions, which depend upon the actors conducting and establishing these things.
The following example, once again from that paper on The Odyssey, typifies another instance where an instructor might desire more precision and clarity:
Although Penelope shares heroic characteristics with her husband, Odysseus, she
is not considered a hero.
Who does not consider Penelope a hero? It's difficult to tell, but the rest of that paragraph suggests that the student does not consider Penelope a hero (the topic of the paper). The reader might also conceivably think that the student is referring to critics, scholars, or modern readers of The Odyssey. One might argue that the meaning comes through here—the problem is merely stylistic. Yet style affects how your reader understands your argument and content. Awkward or unclear style prevents your reader from appreciating the ideas that are so clear to you when you write. Thus knowing how your reader might react enables you to make more effective choices when you revise. So after you identify instances of the passive, you should consider whether your use of the passive inhibits clear understanding of what you mean.
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Summarizing history or literary plots with the passive voice: don't be a lazy thinker or writer!
With the previous section in mind, you should also know that some instructors proclaim that the passive voice signals sloppy, lazy thinking. These instructors argue that writers who overuse the passive voice have not fully thought through what they are discussing and that this makes for imprecise arguments. Consider these sentences from papers on American history:
The working class was marginalized.
African Americans were discriminated against.
Women were not treated as equals.
Such sentences lack the precision and connection to context and causes that mark rigorous thinking. The reader learns little about the systems, conditions, human decisions, and contradictions that produced these groups' experiences of oppression. And so the reader—the instructor—questions the writer's understanding of these things.
It is especially important to be sure that your thesis statement is clear and precise, so think twice before using the passive voice in your thesis.
In papers where you discuss the work of an author—e.g., a historian or writer of literature—you can also strengthen your writing by not relying on the passive as a crutch when summarizing plots or arguments. Instead of writing
It is argued that…
or Tom and Huck are portrayed as…
or And then the link between X and Y is made, showing that…
you can heighten the level of your analysis by explicitly connecting an author with these statements:
Anderson argues that…
Twain portrays Tom and Huck as…
Ishiguro draws a link between X and Y to show that…
By avoiding passive constructions in these situations, you can demonstrate a more thorough understanding of the material you discuss.
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Scientific writing
All this advice works for papers in the humanities, you might note—but what about technical or scientific papers, including lab reports? Many instructors recommend or even require the passive voice in such writing. The rationale for using the passive voice in scientific writing is that it achieves "an objective tone"—for example, by avoiding the first person. To consider scientific writing, let's break it up into two main types: lab reports and writing about a scientific topic or literature.
Lab reports
Although more and more scientific journals accept or even prefer first-person active voice (e.g., "then we sequenced the human genome"), some of your instructors may want you to remove yourself from your lab report by using the passive voice (e.g., "then the human genome was sequenced" rather than "then we sequenced the human genome"). Such advice particularly applies to the section on Materials and Methods, where a procedure "is followed." (For a fuller discussion on writing lab reports, see our handout on writing lab reports.)
While you might employ the passive voice to retain objectivity, you can still use active constructions in some instances and retain your objective stance. Thus it's useful to keep in mind the sort of active verbs you might use in lab reports. Examples include: support, indicate, suggest, correspond, challenge, yield, show.
Thus instead of writing
A number of things are indicated by these results.
you could write
These results indicate a number of things.
or Further analysis showed/suggested/yielded…
Ultimately, you should find out your instructor's preference regarding your use of the passive in lab reports.
Writing about scientific topics
In some assignments, rather than reporting the results of your own scientific work, you will be writing about the work of other scientists. Such assignments might include literature reviews and research reports on scientific topics. You have two main possible tasks in these assignments: reporting what other people have done (their research or experiments) or indicating general scientific knowledge (the body of knowledge coming out of others' research). Often the two go together. In both instances, you can easily use active constructions even though you might be tempted by the passive—especially if you're used to writing your own lab reports in the passive.
You decide: Which of these two examples is clearer?
Heart disease is considered the leading cause of death in the United States. (passive)
or Research points to heart disease as the leading cause of death in the United States.(active)
Alternatively, you could write this sentence with human actors:
Researchers have concluded that heart disease is the leading cause of death in the United States.
The last two sentences illustrate a relationship that the first one lacks. The first example does not tell who or what leads us to accept this conclusion about heart disease.
Here's one last example from a report that describes angioplasty. Which sounds better to you?
The balloon is positioned in an area of blockage and is inflated.
or The surgeon positions the balloon in an area of blockage and inflates it.
You can improve your scientific writing by relying less on the passive. The advice we've given for papers on history or literature equally applies to papers in more "scientific" courses. No matter what field you're writing in, when you use the passive voice, you risk conveying to your reader a sense of uncertainty and imprecision regarding your writing and thinking. The key is to know when your instructor wants you to use the passive voice. For a more general discussion of writing in the sciences, see our handout.
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"Swindles and perversions"
Before we discuss a few instances when the passive might be preferable, we should mention one of the more political uses of the passive: to hide blame or obscure responsibility. You wouldn't do this, but you can learn how to become a critic of those who exhibit what George Orwell included among the "swindles and perversions" of writing. For example:
Mistakes were made.
The Exxon Company accepts that a few gallons might have been spilled.
By becoming critically aware of how others use language to shape clarity and meaning, you can learn how better to revise your own work. Keep Orwell's swindles and perversions in mind as you read other writers. Because it's easy to leave the actor out of passive sentences, some people use the passive voice to avoid mentioning who is responsible for certain actions.
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So when is it OK to use the passive?
Sometimes the passive voice is the best choice. Here are a few instances when the passive voice is quite useful:
1. To emphasize an object.Take a look at this example:
100 votes are required to pass the bill.
This passive sentence emphasizes the number of votes required. An active version of the sentence ("The bill requires 100 votes to pass") would put the emphasis on the bill, which may be less dramatic.
2. To de-emphasize an unknown subject/actor. Consider this example:
Over 120 different contaminants have been dumped into the river.
If you don't know who the actor is—in this case, if you don't actually know who dumped all of those contaminants in the river—then you may need to write in the passive. But remember, if you do know the actor, and if the clarity and meaning of your writing would benefit from indicating him/her/it/them, then use an active construction. Yet consider the third case.
3. If your readers don't need to know who's responsible for the action.
Here's where your choice can be difficult; some instances are less clear than others. Try to put yourself in your reader's position to anticipate how he/she will react to the way you have phrased your thoughts. Here are two examples:
Baby Sophia was delivered at 3:30 a.m. yesterday.(passive)
and
Dr. Susan Jones delivered baby Sophia at 3:30 a.m. yesterday.(active)
The first sentence might be more appropriate in a birth announcement sent to family and friends—they are not likely to know Dr. Jones and are much more interested in the "object"(the baby) than in the actor (the doctor). A hospital report of yesterday's events might be more likely to focus on Dr. Jones' role.
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Summary of strategies
Identify
* Look for the passive voice: "to be" + a past participle (usually, but not always, ending in "-ed")
* If you don't see both components, move on.
* Does the sentence describe an action? If so, where is the actor? Is he/she/it in the grammatical subject position (at the front of the sentence) or in the object position (at the end of the sentence, or missing entirely)?
* Does the sentence end with "by..."? Many passive sentences include the actor at the end of the sentence in a "by" phrase, like "The ball was hit by the player" or "The shoe was chewed up by the dog." "By" by itself isn't a conclusive sign of the passive voice, but it can prompt you to take a closer look.
Evaluate
* Is the doer/actor indicated? Should you indicate him/her/it?
* Does it really matter who's responsible for the action?
* Would your reader ask you to clarify a sentence because of an issue related to your use of the passive?
* Do you use a passive construction in your thesis statement?
* Do you use the passive as a crutch in summarizing a plot or history, or in describing something?
* Do you want to emphasize the object?
Revise
* If you decide that your sentence would be clearer in the active voice, switch the sentence around to make the subject and actor one. Put the actor (the one doing the action of the sentence) in front of the verb.
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Towards active thinking and writing
We encourage you to keep these tips in mind as you revise. While you may be able to employ this advice as you write your first draft, that's not necessarily always possible. In writing, clarity often comes when you revise, not on your first try. Don't worry about the passive if that stress inhibits you in getting your ideas down on paper. But do look for it when you revise. Actively make choices about its proper place in your writing. There is nothing grammatically or otherwise "wrong" about using the passive voice. The key is to recognize when you should, when you shouldn't, and when your instructor just doesn't want you to. These choices are yours. We hope this handout helps you to make them.
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Works consulted and suggested reading
We consulted these works while writing the original version of this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout's topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find the latest publications on this topic. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial.
Spoof
The rules of spoof
Basic rules
Spoof is a game of chance often played in a pub to establish who buys the next round. It has the quirky character that it is a game without a winner, just a loser. Basically it is a guessing game involving coins. Each player draws some number of coins between zero and three from their pocket and holds them concealed within a clenched hand. If more than three are held this is deemed to count as three. The denomination of the coin is irrelevant, its just the number that counts. The idea is then to take turns to guess the combined total number contained in all the players' hands. Its that easy ! One player starts by making a guess ('call' or 'shout') and then the guesses proceed clockwise until all have guessed a number that hasn't previously been taken. This is a single round of the game. All players then reveal their coins, a total is calculated (and checked!) and someone may be 'out' if they chose the exact number (there are no prizes for nearly). If this happens the not-loser will then sit out the remaining rounds of this particular game and the others will play more rounds in the same way until only two players are left. This is' the final'. The player who loses this buys the drinks. If nobody guessed the correct number in any given round then the round is played again. Every time a round is played the first person to call rotates clockwise to the next available player.
Who starts ?
There seems to be no clear convention on this matter. There are several variations of methods that use coins. One of the most popular (at least in Wiltshire, certain parts of New York, California, France, and now Warwickshire ;-) ) is 'odd one out'. This requires all players to draw a single coin at random and place it on the bar, concealing it under the palm of their hand until all are ready, at which point the coins are revealed. Each coin is either a head or a tail. If anyone has the only head or the only tail then they are the odd one out will call first in the first round of the game. Otherwise the 'heads go again', i.e. only those people with a heads repeat the process. They would first toss the coin or, more usually, bring one at random from their pocket. The same procedure is applied, repeatedly if required, until there is a unique odd one out or only two players remain. If only two players remain then they again draw a coin and the first of the two to place his hand on the bar may announce "match that". If the second player successfully matches the face of the first then he will call first otherwise the first player will have the honour. The person to call first then rotates as each new round is played, as discussed above.
There are also at least two conventions that I know of to determine who will call first in subsequent games. My personal favourite is simply that the person who was first out (made the first correct call) in the previous game calls first in the next. This is known as 'first out first shout'. The main alternative is 'loser shouts or nominates' in which the loser of the previous game can nominate any player to call first in the next.
Etiquette
There are a few points of etiquette associated with this game.
If any player wishes to guess zero, believing that everyone's hand is empty, it is conventional to shout 'spoof', this signifying a guess of zero.
Many schools of spoof operate a 'no bum shouts' rule. This means that each call that is made must be hypothetically possible given only your knowledge of what you hold in your hand and the number of other players in that round of the game. Consider, as an example, two players competing in a round, one of whom holds two coins. Given that the other player could conceivably have as many as three coins, or as few as zero, this player can make any call between two and five inclusive. A shout of either six, one or spoof would be a 'bum shout'. The penalty for making a bum shout can either be to endure being called an idiot, and to have to play the round again, (friendly rules) or an immediate forfeit of that game, with the player buying the round of drinks in question (old-fashioned rules). Some schools will permit bum shouts and it is important thing to establish if this is the case, and the penalty for making such a call, when playing in a school for the first time. My personal preference, in common with most experienced spoofers that I know, is to not permit bum shouts.
It is common to suggest playing a game (or games...) of spoof later in the 'session'. It can be particularly convenient (and most fair) to propose a game of spoof at the stage of the evening when everyone has bought the same number of rounds.
The loser does not usually gain any particular dispensation in subsequent games. It is quite possible for the same person to loose several games in a row, however statistically improbable that this may seem.
After each round of guessing, when everyone has called, it is conventional to reveal the number of coins that each player is holding in turn, in the order in which the calls were made.
It is not uncommon to agree to spoof for half pints. Some idiot may also occassionally suggest that the 'loser choses' the drinks to be bought. As you can probably tell I don't enjoy this variant as it can get a bit silly and, anyway, I like to choose what I drink myself. In any case this should certainly have unanimous agreement in advance at which point it would also be wise to set some rough guidelines for what is at stake (e.g. shorts, doubles, pints, cocktails (!) etc).
One superstition associated with the game is that beginners are at an advantage. There is some reason to this as such players are usually rather unpredictable. A further supersition is that the person who first suggests playing spoof will loose the first game of the evening. Again there may be some scientisfic basis for this given that enthusiasm can be correlated with alcohol consumption which can, in turn, be inversely correlated with proficiency.
From personal experience I might also offer a word of warning to any scientists or mathematicians who may be reading this and think that their superior knowledge of probability might give them an automatic advantage. Beware, there is quite a lot to this game !
Although not strictly part of the etiquette of spoof per se the English system of buying rounds seems to provoke some confusion, especially with foreigners. Unfortunately a thorough discussion of this convention, and its numerous variations, is beyond the scope of this site. In brief it is polite to try to buy a drink for anyone who has bought you one. Similar simplifications are employed in cricket where one can say that the batsmen is out LBW if the ball hits his legs but would have gone on to hit the stumps.
Competition
Spoof is not a game which lends itself easily to competitions involving large numbers of people. This is partly because the game is designed to identify a loser, rather than a winner. It is also difficult to invent a system that retains the essential link between buying (and consuming) drinks and yet establishes a winner sufficiently rapidly so as not to become simply a test of who can consume the most beer. Nonetheless it is with the intention of establishing the world spoof championships at the Virgins & Castle pub, Kenilworth that we propose the rules below.
Competition rules
Either (i) eighteen or (ii) thirty six competitors shall be divided at random into schools of six apiece. A predetermined number of rounds of spoof will then be played in order to establish either (i) two or (ii) one person from each school to proceed to the final and the same number of losers to proceed to a "losers final". Each round will be played for a half-pint or equivalent, being paid for by the loser as usual. Points will be assigned in each game. The player who is out first will receive 10 points, second will receive 9 points, third 8 points (etc) with the loser receiving no points at all. Trophies will be awarded for the highest total at the end of the final and for the lowest total at the end of the losers final.
Anyone who would like to be added to the mailing list for this competition should drop me an email at the address given below.
Folklore and alternative rules (contributions welcome !)
1. "If someone is really bullshitting their pupils contract slightly when you stare at them full on - its inadvertent, and its my key to success (barring that disastrous 60 quid run last xmas)." [Alan Parker 24/11/05]
2. The ancient superstition of calling "in the slot" can often work well. If you are calling late in a particular round of spoof and the numbers have already been chosen "bracket" one that is still available (e.g. 4,5,6,8,9 taken but 7 available) you should go "in the slot" by choosing that number pretty much irrespective of other considerations. [MST 24/11/05]
3. We have a slightly different twist on the game that creates a huge amount of tension. Everybody is free to buy drinks from a communal kitty and drink during the game. However, the loser actually has to drink a large glass of Absynth. The drink is placed in the middle of the spoof table as a totem to increase the level of fear. The more the loser drinks, the poorer their judgement becomes and the worse they play. [Stuart Browne 16/3/06]
4. [On spoofing in Kenya some years ago] Bum shouts were "legal" ... to make the game more challenging, not that it needed to be after a couple of pints! "I always thought that's why they called it "Spoof" - you were spoofing your neighbour as to
the real total." [Tony Karian & pal 13/4/06]
5. Spoofing is a game played by gentlemen, thus, when a fellow spoofer guesses the correct amount of coins he must refrain from showing any emotion and in a polite and gentlemanly manner ask to leave the game, something along the lines of "Thankyou gentlemen, it has been a pleasure spoofing with you, I would like to leave the game". If our fellow spoofer does not do this he will be asked to rejoin the group until he can leave the game with the right ettiquete. [Todd Eadie 13/10/06] (I find this variation popular with rugby players - MST)
6. The loser of any round would be afforded the status of dry leg for the next round.
If he lost that round too the result would be void, he would be excused the round of drinks and the round of Spoof would be replayed by everybody.
A dry leg was good for only one round immediately after the loss. The player would be fully liable if careless enough to lose the replayed round. [Richard Hayward 6/2/07]
7. If, when playing for drinks, a spoof or full house call is successfully made an extra shot is introduced to be drunk by the looser. This seems fair as winning on either of these calls deserves a bonus for such a great call. It also adds a huge amount of extra interest or tension to the final. [Submitted by Martin on behalf of the Glanville appreciation society 04/04/2008]
8. [On competition rules...] Basically we have even groups of four and play seven rounds. First correct call is awarded 4 points, 2 for second, 1 for third. The winner is the one with the most points after seven rounds. Winners go straight to the semifinals losers play off in a repocharge. Once we have all semi finalists declared we have a Calcutta where you can bid money on who you believe will win the final. Semi finals depending on numbers should be two tables of four same scoring systems the winner from each table plays off in the final. Finalists can choose a seconded, normally the person who has money on them winning, the seconded acts as a caller. The final is a best of nine games. Normally during championship spoofing beer and bottles of wine are spoofed for to keep the vocal chords well lubed for the calls. [Contributed by Mick Wilshier on behalf of the Tasmanian spoofers.]
Basic rules
Spoof is a game of chance often played in a pub to establish who buys the next round. It has the quirky character that it is a game without a winner, just a loser. Basically it is a guessing game involving coins. Each player draws some number of coins between zero and three from their pocket and holds them concealed within a clenched hand. If more than three are held this is deemed to count as three. The denomination of the coin is irrelevant, its just the number that counts. The idea is then to take turns to guess the combined total number contained in all the players' hands. Its that easy ! One player starts by making a guess ('call' or 'shout') and then the guesses proceed clockwise until all have guessed a number that hasn't previously been taken. This is a single round of the game. All players then reveal their coins, a total is calculated (and checked!) and someone may be 'out' if they chose the exact number (there are no prizes for nearly). If this happens the not-loser will then sit out the remaining rounds of this particular game and the others will play more rounds in the same way until only two players are left. This is' the final'. The player who loses this buys the drinks. If nobody guessed the correct number in any given round then the round is played again. Every time a round is played the first person to call rotates clockwise to the next available player.
Who starts ?
There seems to be no clear convention on this matter. There are several variations of methods that use coins. One of the most popular (at least in Wiltshire, certain parts of New York, California, France, and now Warwickshire ;-) ) is 'odd one out'. This requires all players to draw a single coin at random and place it on the bar, concealing it under the palm of their hand until all are ready, at which point the coins are revealed. Each coin is either a head or a tail. If anyone has the only head or the only tail then they are the odd one out will call first in the first round of the game. Otherwise the 'heads go again', i.e. only those people with a heads repeat the process. They would first toss the coin or, more usually, bring one at random from their pocket. The same procedure is applied, repeatedly if required, until there is a unique odd one out or only two players remain. If only two players remain then they again draw a coin and the first of the two to place his hand on the bar may announce "match that". If the second player successfully matches the face of the first then he will call first otherwise the first player will have the honour. The person to call first then rotates as each new round is played, as discussed above.
There are also at least two conventions that I know of to determine who will call first in subsequent games. My personal favourite is simply that the person who was first out (made the first correct call) in the previous game calls first in the next. This is known as 'first out first shout'. The main alternative is 'loser shouts or nominates' in which the loser of the previous game can nominate any player to call first in the next.
Etiquette
There are a few points of etiquette associated with this game.
If any player wishes to guess zero, believing that everyone's hand is empty, it is conventional to shout 'spoof', this signifying a guess of zero.
Many schools of spoof operate a 'no bum shouts' rule. This means that each call that is made must be hypothetically possible given only your knowledge of what you hold in your hand and the number of other players in that round of the game. Consider, as an example, two players competing in a round, one of whom holds two coins. Given that the other player could conceivably have as many as three coins, or as few as zero, this player can make any call between two and five inclusive. A shout of either six, one or spoof would be a 'bum shout'. The penalty for making a bum shout can either be to endure being called an idiot, and to have to play the round again, (friendly rules) or an immediate forfeit of that game, with the player buying the round of drinks in question (old-fashioned rules). Some schools will permit bum shouts and it is important thing to establish if this is the case, and the penalty for making such a call, when playing in a school for the first time. My personal preference, in common with most experienced spoofers that I know, is to not permit bum shouts.
It is common to suggest playing a game (or games...) of spoof later in the 'session'. It can be particularly convenient (and most fair) to propose a game of spoof at the stage of the evening when everyone has bought the same number of rounds.
The loser does not usually gain any particular dispensation in subsequent games. It is quite possible for the same person to loose several games in a row, however statistically improbable that this may seem.
After each round of guessing, when everyone has called, it is conventional to reveal the number of coins that each player is holding in turn, in the order in which the calls were made.
It is not uncommon to agree to spoof for half pints. Some idiot may also occassionally suggest that the 'loser choses' the drinks to be bought. As you can probably tell I don't enjoy this variant as it can get a bit silly and, anyway, I like to choose what I drink myself. In any case this should certainly have unanimous agreement in advance at which point it would also be wise to set some rough guidelines for what is at stake (e.g. shorts, doubles, pints, cocktails (!) etc).
One superstition associated with the game is that beginners are at an advantage. There is some reason to this as such players are usually rather unpredictable. A further supersition is that the person who first suggests playing spoof will loose the first game of the evening. Again there may be some scientisfic basis for this given that enthusiasm can be correlated with alcohol consumption which can, in turn, be inversely correlated with proficiency.
From personal experience I might also offer a word of warning to any scientists or mathematicians who may be reading this and think that their superior knowledge of probability might give them an automatic advantage. Beware, there is quite a lot to this game !
Although not strictly part of the etiquette of spoof per se the English system of buying rounds seems to provoke some confusion, especially with foreigners. Unfortunately a thorough discussion of this convention, and its numerous variations, is beyond the scope of this site. In brief it is polite to try to buy a drink for anyone who has bought you one. Similar simplifications are employed in cricket where one can say that the batsmen is out LBW if the ball hits his legs but would have gone on to hit the stumps.
Competition
Spoof is not a game which lends itself easily to competitions involving large numbers of people. This is partly because the game is designed to identify a loser, rather than a winner. It is also difficult to invent a system that retains the essential link between buying (and consuming) drinks and yet establishes a winner sufficiently rapidly so as not to become simply a test of who can consume the most beer. Nonetheless it is with the intention of establishing the world spoof championships at the Virgins & Castle pub, Kenilworth that we propose the rules below.
Competition rules
Either (i) eighteen or (ii) thirty six competitors shall be divided at random into schools of six apiece. A predetermined number of rounds of spoof will then be played in order to establish either (i) two or (ii) one person from each school to proceed to the final and the same number of losers to proceed to a "losers final". Each round will be played for a half-pint or equivalent, being paid for by the loser as usual. Points will be assigned in each game. The player who is out first will receive 10 points, second will receive 9 points, third 8 points (etc) with the loser receiving no points at all. Trophies will be awarded for the highest total at the end of the final and for the lowest total at the end of the losers final.
Anyone who would like to be added to the mailing list for this competition should drop me an email at the address given below.
Folklore and alternative rules (contributions welcome !)
1. "If someone is really bullshitting their pupils contract slightly when you stare at them full on - its inadvertent, and its my key to success (barring that disastrous 60 quid run last xmas)." [Alan Parker 24/11/05]
2. The ancient superstition of calling "in the slot" can often work well. If you are calling late in a particular round of spoof and the numbers have already been chosen "bracket" one that is still available (e.g. 4,5,6,8,9 taken but 7 available) you should go "in the slot" by choosing that number pretty much irrespective of other considerations. [MST 24/11/05]
3. We have a slightly different twist on the game that creates a huge amount of tension. Everybody is free to buy drinks from a communal kitty and drink during the game. However, the loser actually has to drink a large glass of Absynth. The drink is placed in the middle of the spoof table as a totem to increase the level of fear. The more the loser drinks, the poorer their judgement becomes and the worse they play. [Stuart Browne 16/3/06]
4. [On spoofing in Kenya some years ago] Bum shouts were "legal" ... to make the game more challenging, not that it needed to be after a couple of pints! "I always thought that's why they called it "Spoof" - you were spoofing your neighbour as to
the real total." [Tony Karian & pal 13/4/06]
5. Spoofing is a game played by gentlemen, thus, when a fellow spoofer guesses the correct amount of coins he must refrain from showing any emotion and in a polite and gentlemanly manner ask to leave the game, something along the lines of "Thankyou gentlemen, it has been a pleasure spoofing with you, I would like to leave the game". If our fellow spoofer does not do this he will be asked to rejoin the group until he can leave the game with the right ettiquete. [Todd Eadie 13/10/06] (I find this variation popular with rugby players - MST)
6. The loser of any round would be afforded the status of dry leg for the next round.
If he lost that round too the result would be void, he would be excused the round of drinks and the round of Spoof would be replayed by everybody.
A dry leg was good for only one round immediately after the loss. The player would be fully liable if careless enough to lose the replayed round. [Richard Hayward 6/2/07]
7. If, when playing for drinks, a spoof or full house call is successfully made an extra shot is introduced to be drunk by the looser. This seems fair as winning on either of these calls deserves a bonus for such a great call. It also adds a huge amount of extra interest or tension to the final. [Submitted by Martin on behalf of the Glanville appreciation society 04/04/2008]
8. [On competition rules...] Basically we have even groups of four and play seven rounds. First correct call is awarded 4 points, 2 for second, 1 for third. The winner is the one with the most points after seven rounds. Winners go straight to the semifinals losers play off in a repocharge. Once we have all semi finalists declared we have a Calcutta where you can bid money on who you believe will win the final. Semi finals depending on numbers should be two tables of four same scoring systems the winner from each table plays off in the final. Finalists can choose a seconded, normally the person who has money on them winning, the seconded acts as a caller. The final is a best of nine games. Normally during championship spoofing beer and bottles of wine are spoofed for to keep the vocal chords well lubed for the calls. [Contributed by Mick Wilshier on behalf of the Tasmanian spoofers.]
Narrative
A narrative is a story that is created in a constructive format (as a work of speech, writing, song, film, television, video games, in photography or theatre) that describes a sequence of fictional or non-fictional events. The word derives from the Latin verb narrare, "to recount", and is related to the adjective gnarus, "knowing" or "skilled".[1] Ultimately its origin is found in the Proto-Indo-European root gnō-, "to know".[2]
The word "story" may be used as a synonym of "narrative", but can also be used to refer to the sequence of events described in a narrative. A narrative can also be told by a character within a larger narrative. An important part of narration is the narrative mode, the set of methods used to communicate the narrative through a process called narration.
Along with exposition, argumentation and description, narration, broadly defined, is one of four rhetorical modes of discourse. More narrowly defined, it is the fiction-writing mode whereby the narrator communicates directly to the reader.
Stories are an important aspect of culture. Many works of art and most works of literature tell stories; indeed, most of the humanities involve stories. Owen Flanagan of Duke University, a leading consciousness researcher, writes that “Evidence strongly suggests that humans in all cultures come to cast their own identity in some sort of narrative form. We are inveterate storytellers” (Consciousness Reconsidered 198).
Stories are of ancient origin, existing in ancient Egyptian, ancient Greek, Chinese and Indian culture. Stories are also a ubiquitous component of human communication, used as parables and examples to illustrate points. Storytelling was probably one of the earliest forms of entertainment. Narrative may also refer to psychological processes in self-identity, memory and meaning-making.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Conceptual issues
* 2 Literary theory
* 3 Narrative aesthetics
* 4 Narration as a fiction-writing mode
* 5 Psychological narrative
* 6 Historiography
* 7 See also
o 7.1 Other specific applications
* 8 Sources
* 9 Further reading
* 10 External links
[edit] Conceptual issues
Semiotics begins with the individual building blocks of meaning called signs; and semantics, the way in which signs are combined into codes to transmit messages. This is part of a general communication system using both verbal and non-verbal elements, and creating a discourse with different modalities and forms.
In On Realism in Art Roman Jakobson argues that literature does not exist as a separate entity. He and many other semioticians prefer the view that all texts, whether spoken or written, are the same, except that some authors encode their texts with distinctive literary qualities that distinguish them from other forms of discourse. Nevertheless, there is a clear trend to address literary narrative forms as separable from other forms. This is first seen in Russian Formalism through Victor Shklovsky's analysis of the relationship between composition and style, and in the work of Vladimir Propp, who analysed the plots used in traditional folk-tales and identified 31 distinct functional components.[3] This trend (or these trends) continued in the work of the Prague School and of French scholars such as Claude Lévi-Strauss and Roland Barthes. It leads to a structural analysis of narrative and an increasingly influential body of modern work that raises important epistemological questions:
* What is text?
* What is its role in the contextual culture?
* How is it manifested as art, cinema, theatre, or literature?
* Why is narrative divided into different genres, such as poetry, short stories, and novels?
* Why are narratives put into literature?
[edit] Literary theory
For general purposes in semiotics and literary theory, a "narrative" is a story or part of a story. It may be spoken, written or imagined, and it will have one or more points of view representing some or all of the participants or observers. In stories told orally, there is a person telling the story, a narrator whom the audience can see and/or hear, who adds layers of meaning to the text non-verbally. The narrator also has the opportunity to monitor the audience's response to the story and modify the manner of the telling to clarify content or enhance listener interest. This is distinguishable from the written form in which the author must gauge the readers' likely reactions when they are decoding the text and make a final choice of words in the hope of achieving the desired response.
Whatever the form, the content may concern real-world people and events; this is termed "personal experience narrative". When the content is fictional, different conventions apply. The text projects a narrative voice, but the narrator belongs to an invented or imaginary world, not the real one. The narrator may be one of the characters in the story. Roland Barthes describes such characters as "paper beings", and fiction comprises their narratives of personal experience as created by the author. When their thoughts are included, this is termed internal focalisation: when each character's mind focuses on a particular event, the text reflects his or her reactions.
In written forms the reader hears the narrator's voice both through the choice of content and the style — the author can encode voices for different emotions and situations, and the voices can be either overt or covert —, and through clues that reveal the narrator's beliefs, values and ideological stances, as well as the author's attitude towards people, events and things. It is customary to distinguish a first-person from a third-person narrative: Gérard Genette uses the terms homodiegetic and heterodiegetic narrative respectively. A homodiegetic narrator describes his or her personal and subjective experiences as a character in the story. Such a narrator cannot know anything more about what goes on in the minds of any of the other characters than is revealed through their actions; a heterodiegetic narrator describes the experiences of the characters who appear in the story and, if the story's events are seen through the eyes of a third-person internal focaliser, this is termed a figural narrative. In some stories, the author may be overtly omniscient, and both employ multiple points of view and comment directly on events as they occur.
Tzvetan Todorov (1969) coined the term "narratology" for the structuralist analysis of any given narrative into its constituent parts to determine their function(s) and relationships. For these purposes, the story is what is narrated as usually a chronological sequence of themes, motives and plot lines; hence, the plot represents the logical and causal structure of a story, explaining why its events occur. The term discourse is used to describe the stylistic choices that determine how the narrative text or performance finally appears to the audience. One of the stylistic decisions may be to present events in non-chronological order, using flashbacks, for example, to reveal motivations at a dramatic moment.
[edit] Narrative aesthetics
The art of narrative is by definition a highly aesthetic enterprise. There are a number of aesthetic elements that typically interact in well-developed stories. Such elements include the essential idea of narrative structure, with identifiable beginnings, middles and ends, or exposition-development-climax-resolution-denouement, normally constructed into coherent plot lines; a strong focus on temporality that includes retention of the past, attention to present action and protention/future anticipation; a substantial focus on characters and characterization which is “arguably the most important single component of the novel” (David Lodge The Art of Fiction 67); a given hetergloss of different voices dialogically at play, “the sound of the human voice, or many voices, speaking in a variety of accents, rhythms and registers” (Lodge The Art of Fiction 97; see also the theory of Mikhail Bakhtin for expansion of this idea); possesses a narrator or narrator-like voice, which by definition “addresses” and “interacts with” reading audiences (see Reader Response theory); communicates with a Wayne Booth-esque rhetorical thrust, a dialectic process of interpretation, which is at times beneath the surface, conditioning a plotted narrative, and other at other times much more visible, “arguing” for and against various positions; relies substantially on now-standard aesthetic figuration, particularly including the use of metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche and irony (see Hayden White, Metahistory for expansion of this idea); is often enmeshed in intertextuality, with copious connections, references, allusions, similarities, parallels, etc. to other literatures; and commonly demonstrates an effort toward bildungsroman, a description of identity development with an effort to evince becoming in character and community.
[edit] Narration as a fiction-writing mode
As with many words in the English language, narration has more than one meaning. In its broadest context narration encompasses all written fiction.
As one of the four rhetorical modes of discourse, the purpose of narration is to tell a story or to narrate an event or series of events. Narrative may exist in a variety of forms, including biographies, anecdotes, short stories and novels. In this context, all written fiction may be viewed as narration.
Narrowly defined, narration is the fiction-writing mode whereby the narrator is communicating directly to the reader. If, however, the broad definition of narration includes all written fiction, and the narrow definition is limited merely to that which is directly communicated to the reader, what comprises the rest of written fiction? The remainder of written fiction would be in the form of any of the other fiction-writing modes, such as description, exposition, summarization, etc.
[edit] Psychological narrative
Within philosophy of mind, the social sciences and various clinical fields including medicine, narrative can refer to aspects of human psychology.[4] A personal narrative process is involved in a person's sense of personal or cultural identity, and in the creation and construction of memories; it is thought by some to be the fundamental nature of the self.[5][6] The breakdown of a coherent or positive narrative has been implicated in the development of psychosis and mental disorder, and its repair said to play an important role in journeys of recovery.[7] Narrative Therapy is a school of (family) psychotherapy.
Illness narratives are a way for a person affected by an illness to make sense of his or her experiences.[8] They typically follow one of several set patterns: restitution, chaos, or quest narratives. In the restitution narrative, the person sees the illness as a temporary detour. The primary goal is to return permanently to normal life and normal health. These may also be called cure narratives. In the chaos narrative, the person sees the illness as a permanent state that will inexorably get worse, with no redeeming virtues. This is typical of diseases like Alzheimer's disease: the patient gets worse and worse, and there is no hope of returning to normal life. The third major type, the quest narrative, positions the illness experience as an opportunity to transform oneself into a better person through overcoming adversity and re-learning what is most important in life; the physical outcome of the illness is less important than the spiritual and psychological transformation. This is typical of the triumphant view of cancer survivorship in the breast cancer culture.[8]
[edit] Historiography
In historiography, according to Lawrence Stone, narrative has traditionally been the main rhetorical device used by historians. In 1979, at a time when the new Social History was demanding a social-science model of analysis, Stone detected a move back toward the narrative. Lawrence Stone started it in 1979. He defined narrative: it is organized chronologically; it is focused on a single coherent story; it is descriptive rather than analytical; it is concerned with people not abstract circumstances; and it deals with the particular and specific rather than the collective and statistical. He reported that, "More and more of the 'new historians' are now trying to discover what was going on inside people's heads in the past, and what it was like to live in the past, questions which inevitably lead back to the use of narrative."[9]
Historians committed to a social science approach, however, have criticized the narrowness of narrative and its preference for anecdote over analysis, and clever examples rather than statistical regularities.[10]
The word "story" may be used as a synonym of "narrative", but can also be used to refer to the sequence of events described in a narrative. A narrative can also be told by a character within a larger narrative. An important part of narration is the narrative mode, the set of methods used to communicate the narrative through a process called narration.
Along with exposition, argumentation and description, narration, broadly defined, is one of four rhetorical modes of discourse. More narrowly defined, it is the fiction-writing mode whereby the narrator communicates directly to the reader.
Stories are an important aspect of culture. Many works of art and most works of literature tell stories; indeed, most of the humanities involve stories. Owen Flanagan of Duke University, a leading consciousness researcher, writes that “Evidence strongly suggests that humans in all cultures come to cast their own identity in some sort of narrative form. We are inveterate storytellers” (Consciousness Reconsidered 198).
Stories are of ancient origin, existing in ancient Egyptian, ancient Greek, Chinese and Indian culture. Stories are also a ubiquitous component of human communication, used as parables and examples to illustrate points. Storytelling was probably one of the earliest forms of entertainment. Narrative may also refer to psychological processes in self-identity, memory and meaning-making.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Conceptual issues
* 2 Literary theory
* 3 Narrative aesthetics
* 4 Narration as a fiction-writing mode
* 5 Psychological narrative
* 6 Historiography
* 7 See also
o 7.1 Other specific applications
* 8 Sources
* 9 Further reading
* 10 External links
[edit] Conceptual issues
Semiotics begins with the individual building blocks of meaning called signs; and semantics, the way in which signs are combined into codes to transmit messages. This is part of a general communication system using both verbal and non-verbal elements, and creating a discourse with different modalities and forms.
In On Realism in Art Roman Jakobson argues that literature does not exist as a separate entity. He and many other semioticians prefer the view that all texts, whether spoken or written, are the same, except that some authors encode their texts with distinctive literary qualities that distinguish them from other forms of discourse. Nevertheless, there is a clear trend to address literary narrative forms as separable from other forms. This is first seen in Russian Formalism through Victor Shklovsky's analysis of the relationship between composition and style, and in the work of Vladimir Propp, who analysed the plots used in traditional folk-tales and identified 31 distinct functional components.[3] This trend (or these trends) continued in the work of the Prague School and of French scholars such as Claude Lévi-Strauss and Roland Barthes. It leads to a structural analysis of narrative and an increasingly influential body of modern work that raises important epistemological questions:
* What is text?
* What is its role in the contextual culture?
* How is it manifested as art, cinema, theatre, or literature?
* Why is narrative divided into different genres, such as poetry, short stories, and novels?
* Why are narratives put into literature?
[edit] Literary theory
For general purposes in semiotics and literary theory, a "narrative" is a story or part of a story. It may be spoken, written or imagined, and it will have one or more points of view representing some or all of the participants or observers. In stories told orally, there is a person telling the story, a narrator whom the audience can see and/or hear, who adds layers of meaning to the text non-verbally. The narrator also has the opportunity to monitor the audience's response to the story and modify the manner of the telling to clarify content or enhance listener interest. This is distinguishable from the written form in which the author must gauge the readers' likely reactions when they are decoding the text and make a final choice of words in the hope of achieving the desired response.
Whatever the form, the content may concern real-world people and events; this is termed "personal experience narrative". When the content is fictional, different conventions apply. The text projects a narrative voice, but the narrator belongs to an invented or imaginary world, not the real one. The narrator may be one of the characters in the story. Roland Barthes describes such characters as "paper beings", and fiction comprises their narratives of personal experience as created by the author. When their thoughts are included, this is termed internal focalisation: when each character's mind focuses on a particular event, the text reflects his or her reactions.
In written forms the reader hears the narrator's voice both through the choice of content and the style — the author can encode voices for different emotions and situations, and the voices can be either overt or covert —, and through clues that reveal the narrator's beliefs, values and ideological stances, as well as the author's attitude towards people, events and things. It is customary to distinguish a first-person from a third-person narrative: Gérard Genette uses the terms homodiegetic and heterodiegetic narrative respectively. A homodiegetic narrator describes his or her personal and subjective experiences as a character in the story. Such a narrator cannot know anything more about what goes on in the minds of any of the other characters than is revealed through their actions; a heterodiegetic narrator describes the experiences of the characters who appear in the story and, if the story's events are seen through the eyes of a third-person internal focaliser, this is termed a figural narrative. In some stories, the author may be overtly omniscient, and both employ multiple points of view and comment directly on events as they occur.
Tzvetan Todorov (1969) coined the term "narratology" for the structuralist analysis of any given narrative into its constituent parts to determine their function(s) and relationships. For these purposes, the story is what is narrated as usually a chronological sequence of themes, motives and plot lines; hence, the plot represents the logical and causal structure of a story, explaining why its events occur. The term discourse is used to describe the stylistic choices that determine how the narrative text or performance finally appears to the audience. One of the stylistic decisions may be to present events in non-chronological order, using flashbacks, for example, to reveal motivations at a dramatic moment.
[edit] Narrative aesthetics
The art of narrative is by definition a highly aesthetic enterprise. There are a number of aesthetic elements that typically interact in well-developed stories. Such elements include the essential idea of narrative structure, with identifiable beginnings, middles and ends, or exposition-development-climax-resolution-denouement, normally constructed into coherent plot lines; a strong focus on temporality that includes retention of the past, attention to present action and protention/future anticipation; a substantial focus on characters and characterization which is “arguably the most important single component of the novel” (David Lodge The Art of Fiction 67); a given hetergloss of different voices dialogically at play, “the sound of the human voice, or many voices, speaking in a variety of accents, rhythms and registers” (Lodge The Art of Fiction 97; see also the theory of Mikhail Bakhtin for expansion of this idea); possesses a narrator or narrator-like voice, which by definition “addresses” and “interacts with” reading audiences (see Reader Response theory); communicates with a Wayne Booth-esque rhetorical thrust, a dialectic process of interpretation, which is at times beneath the surface, conditioning a plotted narrative, and other at other times much more visible, “arguing” for and against various positions; relies substantially on now-standard aesthetic figuration, particularly including the use of metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche and irony (see Hayden White, Metahistory for expansion of this idea); is often enmeshed in intertextuality, with copious connections, references, allusions, similarities, parallels, etc. to other literatures; and commonly demonstrates an effort toward bildungsroman, a description of identity development with an effort to evince becoming in character and community.
[edit] Narration as a fiction-writing mode
As with many words in the English language, narration has more than one meaning. In its broadest context narration encompasses all written fiction.
As one of the four rhetorical modes of discourse, the purpose of narration is to tell a story or to narrate an event or series of events. Narrative may exist in a variety of forms, including biographies, anecdotes, short stories and novels. In this context, all written fiction may be viewed as narration.
Narrowly defined, narration is the fiction-writing mode whereby the narrator is communicating directly to the reader. If, however, the broad definition of narration includes all written fiction, and the narrow definition is limited merely to that which is directly communicated to the reader, what comprises the rest of written fiction? The remainder of written fiction would be in the form of any of the other fiction-writing modes, such as description, exposition, summarization, etc.
[edit] Psychological narrative
Within philosophy of mind, the social sciences and various clinical fields including medicine, narrative can refer to aspects of human psychology.[4] A personal narrative process is involved in a person's sense of personal or cultural identity, and in the creation and construction of memories; it is thought by some to be the fundamental nature of the self.[5][6] The breakdown of a coherent or positive narrative has been implicated in the development of psychosis and mental disorder, and its repair said to play an important role in journeys of recovery.[7] Narrative Therapy is a school of (family) psychotherapy.
Illness narratives are a way for a person affected by an illness to make sense of his or her experiences.[8] They typically follow one of several set patterns: restitution, chaos, or quest narratives. In the restitution narrative, the person sees the illness as a temporary detour. The primary goal is to return permanently to normal life and normal health. These may also be called cure narratives. In the chaos narrative, the person sees the illness as a permanent state that will inexorably get worse, with no redeeming virtues. This is typical of diseases like Alzheimer's disease: the patient gets worse and worse, and there is no hope of returning to normal life. The third major type, the quest narrative, positions the illness experience as an opportunity to transform oneself into a better person through overcoming adversity and re-learning what is most important in life; the physical outcome of the illness is less important than the spiritual and psychological transformation. This is typical of the triumphant view of cancer survivorship in the breast cancer culture.[8]
[edit] Historiography
In historiography, according to Lawrence Stone, narrative has traditionally been the main rhetorical device used by historians. In 1979, at a time when the new Social History was demanding a social-science model of analysis, Stone detected a move back toward the narrative. Lawrence Stone started it in 1979. He defined narrative: it is organized chronologically; it is focused on a single coherent story; it is descriptive rather than analytical; it is concerned with people not abstract circumstances; and it deals with the particular and specific rather than the collective and statistical. He reported that, "More and more of the 'new historians' are now trying to discover what was going on inside people's heads in the past, and what it was like to live in the past, questions which inevitably lead back to the use of narrative."[9]
Historians committed to a social science approach, however, have criticized the narrowness of narrative and its preference for anecdote over analysis, and clever examples rather than statistical regularities.[10]
Exposition
Within the context of fiction, exposition is the fiction-writing mode for conveying information. According to Robert Kernen, "Exposition can be one of the most effective ways of creating and increasing the drama in your story. It can also be the quickest way to kill a plot's momentum and get your story bogged down in detail. Too much exposition, or too much at one time, can seriously derail a story and be frustrating to the reader or viewer eager for a story to either get moving or move on." (Kernen 1999, p. 57)
Exposition in fiction may be delivered through various means. As noted by Ansen Dibell, the simplest way is to just place the information between scenes as the all-seeing, all-knowing (but impersonal and invisible) narrator.(Dibell 1988, p. 51) Jessica Page Morrell has observed that various devices, such as trial transcriptions, newspaper clippings, letters, and diaries may be used to convey information.(Morrell 2006, p. 94) Another means of delivering information is through a character, either as dialogue or through the character's thoughts.(Dibell 1988, pp. 51–52)
[edit] Information dump
When the presentation of information in fiction becomes wordy, it is sometimes referred to as an "information dump," "exposition dump," or "plot dump." Information dumps expressed by characters in dialogue or monologue are sometimes referred to as "idiot lectures."
Information dumps are sometimes placed at the beginning of stories as a means of establishing the premise of the plot. In serial television dramas, exposition in individual episodes often appears as a brief montage of scenes from earlier episodes, prefaced with the phrase "Previously on [name of series]." Villain speech is a specific form of exposition in which the villain describes his sinister plans to a helpless hero, often prefacing his exposition with the comment that it can't hurt to divulge the plan, since the hero will be dead soon anyway (or the plan will be impossible to stop in the short time available). The villain's motivation sometimes includes his desire to have his cleverness admired by the character most capable of appreciating it. Examples include Comic book supervillains and villains in James Bond movies.
In television, information dumps are common in sit-coms with the introduction of non-recurring characters which drive the comedic plot of a particular episode. An example would be the use of the narrator in Arrested Development to sum up the revelations and inner thoughts of characters in order to keep the viewer tuned to the plot.
In television sketch comedy, which borrows from the tradition of vaudeville comedy, exposition in the most exaggerated sense is used for outrageous comedic effect.
Stories which are concerned with the unearthing of a secret past sometimes include lengthy exposition sequences. These may include large quantities of exposition, complete with theorizing about the implications of the information. Examples include:
* Dan Brown's The Da Vinci Code
* Neal Stephenson's Snow Crash
* Umberto Eco's Foucault's Pendulum
* HBO's Rome (TV series)
[edit] Parodies of information dump
The Austin Powers film series has a character named Basil Exposition whose job was to repeatedly plot dump as a parody of the process in movies with serious plots.
The series Mystery Science Theater 3000 always mocked movies that made blatant use of this practice. For example, in Parts: The Clonus Horror, there is a scene where a character views a videotape that explains the organization's origins and purpose in painstaking detail, basically providing all of the necessary exposition in one fell swoop. Tom Servo quips, "Good thing he wandered into the Department of Backstory!" At the beginning of another MST3k movie, Riding with Death, an extra consults a computer file containing information about the movie's protagonist for completely unexplained reasons (other than providing exposition). Once again, Servo notes this by referring to the computer as the "Backstory Database".
Plot dumps are parodied in the movie Spaceballs when Colonel Sandurz explains a plan to Dark Helmet, though Dark Helmet should have already known the plan. Dark Helmet then faces the camera and, breaking the fourth wall, asks the audience "Everybody got that?" to parody the true purpose of the plot dump.
The "villain speech" is criticized in the film Last Action Hero, where the police traitor, John Practice, reveals his evil plan to Jack Slater and Danny, to which the latter retorts that it's a classic mistake made by villains. Also, in The Incredibles, several characters negatively denote "monologing" as a villain's speech that goes on for too long and distracts him from realizing the superhero is escaping.
Several villains in the Nickelodeon series Danny Phantom have been prone to plot dumping, especially the recurring technology ghost, Nicolai Technus. This is made into a running gag in the episode "Identity Crisis." In that episode, Technus claims to have upgraded himself, one of the advantages of the upgrade being that he would no longer shout his nefarious plot into the sky. He was able to maintain this for most of the episode (at one point even criticizing Danny for shouting something into the air himself), but eventually dictates his plot to himself near victory, immediately afterwards saying, "Nobody heard that, right?"
In the stage musical Urinetown, the first song is in fact titled "Too Much Exposition" during which the Narrator and Little Sally explain about the drought that caused the water shortage, and in turn, the end of private bathrooms. While discussing the issue Officer Lockstock finally stops Little Sally before she reveals too much because "nothing can kill a show like too much exposition." Really! ("What about bad subject matter?" she argues. "Or a bad title? That can kill a show pretty good.")
In an episode of "Spongebob Squarepants," Mr. Krabs returns from a vacation trip and the word "exposition" is displayed over his head. His location was a mystery during the entire episode, this revelation added context to the plotline.
[edit] Incluing
Incluing is a technique of world building, in which the reader is gradually exposed to background information about the world in which a story is set. The idea is to clue the readers into the world the author is building, without them being aware of it.
This in opposition to infodumping, where a concentrated amount of background material is given all at once in the story, often in the form of a conversation between two characters, both of whom should already know the material under discussion. (The so-called As you know, Bob conversation.)
Both incluing and infodumping are forms of exposition and are frequently used in science fiction and fantasy, genres where the author has the task to make the reader believe in a world that does not exist. Writers in other genres have less use for these techniques, as they can often depend on the reader's familiarity with the "real world".
Incluing can be done in a number of ways: through conversation between characters, through background details or by establishing scenes where a character is followed through daily life. One famous example of incluing is the door dilated, a phrase created by Robert A. Heinlein and used in several of his stories and novels. In real life, few doors (if any) open like pupils; the offhand mention establishes the familiarity of this strange thing, and does not call attention to itself.
The word incluing is attributed to fantasy and science fiction author Jo Walton[1]. She defined it as "the process of scattering information seamlessly through the text, as opposed to stopping the story to impart the information." [2]
[edit] See also
* Rhetorical modes
* Expository writing
* Fiction-writing modes
[edit] Further reading
Exposition in fiction may be delivered through various means. As noted by Ansen Dibell, the simplest way is to just place the information between scenes as the all-seeing, all-knowing (but impersonal and invisible) narrator.(Dibell 1988, p. 51) Jessica Page Morrell has observed that various devices, such as trial transcriptions, newspaper clippings, letters, and diaries may be used to convey information.(Morrell 2006, p. 94) Another means of delivering information is through a character, either as dialogue or through the character's thoughts.(Dibell 1988, pp. 51–52)
[edit] Information dump
When the presentation of information in fiction becomes wordy, it is sometimes referred to as an "information dump," "exposition dump," or "plot dump." Information dumps expressed by characters in dialogue or monologue are sometimes referred to as "idiot lectures."
Information dumps are sometimes placed at the beginning of stories as a means of establishing the premise of the plot. In serial television dramas, exposition in individual episodes often appears as a brief montage of scenes from earlier episodes, prefaced with the phrase "Previously on [name of series]." Villain speech is a specific form of exposition in which the villain describes his sinister plans to a helpless hero, often prefacing his exposition with the comment that it can't hurt to divulge the plan, since the hero will be dead soon anyway (or the plan will be impossible to stop in the short time available). The villain's motivation sometimes includes his desire to have his cleverness admired by the character most capable of appreciating it. Examples include Comic book supervillains and villains in James Bond movies.
In television, information dumps are common in sit-coms with the introduction of non-recurring characters which drive the comedic plot of a particular episode. An example would be the use of the narrator in Arrested Development to sum up the revelations and inner thoughts of characters in order to keep the viewer tuned to the plot.
In television sketch comedy, which borrows from the tradition of vaudeville comedy, exposition in the most exaggerated sense is used for outrageous comedic effect.
Stories which are concerned with the unearthing of a secret past sometimes include lengthy exposition sequences. These may include large quantities of exposition, complete with theorizing about the implications of the information. Examples include:
* Dan Brown's The Da Vinci Code
* Neal Stephenson's Snow Crash
* Umberto Eco's Foucault's Pendulum
* HBO's Rome (TV series)
[edit] Parodies of information dump
The Austin Powers film series has a character named Basil Exposition whose job was to repeatedly plot dump as a parody of the process in movies with serious plots.
The series Mystery Science Theater 3000 always mocked movies that made blatant use of this practice. For example, in Parts: The Clonus Horror, there is a scene where a character views a videotape that explains the organization's origins and purpose in painstaking detail, basically providing all of the necessary exposition in one fell swoop. Tom Servo quips, "Good thing he wandered into the Department of Backstory!" At the beginning of another MST3k movie, Riding with Death, an extra consults a computer file containing information about the movie's protagonist for completely unexplained reasons (other than providing exposition). Once again, Servo notes this by referring to the computer as the "Backstory Database".
Plot dumps are parodied in the movie Spaceballs when Colonel Sandurz explains a plan to Dark Helmet, though Dark Helmet should have already known the plan. Dark Helmet then faces the camera and, breaking the fourth wall, asks the audience "Everybody got that?" to parody the true purpose of the plot dump.
The "villain speech" is criticized in the film Last Action Hero, where the police traitor, John Practice, reveals his evil plan to Jack Slater and Danny, to which the latter retorts that it's a classic mistake made by villains. Also, in The Incredibles, several characters negatively denote "monologing" as a villain's speech that goes on for too long and distracts him from realizing the superhero is escaping.
Several villains in the Nickelodeon series Danny Phantom have been prone to plot dumping, especially the recurring technology ghost, Nicolai Technus. This is made into a running gag in the episode "Identity Crisis." In that episode, Technus claims to have upgraded himself, one of the advantages of the upgrade being that he would no longer shout his nefarious plot into the sky. He was able to maintain this for most of the episode (at one point even criticizing Danny for shouting something into the air himself), but eventually dictates his plot to himself near victory, immediately afterwards saying, "Nobody heard that, right?"
In the stage musical Urinetown, the first song is in fact titled "Too Much Exposition" during which the Narrator and Little Sally explain about the drought that caused the water shortage, and in turn, the end of private bathrooms. While discussing the issue Officer Lockstock finally stops Little Sally before she reveals too much because "nothing can kill a show like too much exposition." Really! ("What about bad subject matter?" she argues. "Or a bad title? That can kill a show pretty good.")
In an episode of "Spongebob Squarepants," Mr. Krabs returns from a vacation trip and the word "exposition" is displayed over his head. His location was a mystery during the entire episode, this revelation added context to the plotline.
[edit] Incluing
Incluing is a technique of world building, in which the reader is gradually exposed to background information about the world in which a story is set. The idea is to clue the readers into the world the author is building, without them being aware of it.
This in opposition to infodumping, where a concentrated amount of background material is given all at once in the story, often in the form of a conversation between two characters, both of whom should already know the material under discussion. (The so-called As you know, Bob conversation.)
Both incluing and infodumping are forms of exposition and are frequently used in science fiction and fantasy, genres where the author has the task to make the reader believe in a world that does not exist. Writers in other genres have less use for these techniques, as they can often depend on the reader's familiarity with the "real world".
Incluing can be done in a number of ways: through conversation between characters, through background details or by establishing scenes where a character is followed through daily life. One famous example of incluing is the door dilated, a phrase created by Robert A. Heinlein and used in several of his stories and novels. In real life, few doors (if any) open like pupils; the offhand mention establishes the familiarity of this strange thing, and does not call attention to itself.
The word incluing is attributed to fantasy and science fiction author Jo Walton[1]. She defined it as "the process of scattering information seamlessly through the text, as opposed to stopping the story to impart the information." [2]
[edit] See also
* Rhetorical modes
* Expository writing
* Fiction-writing modes
[edit] Further reading
Kamis, 24 Maret 2011
Irregular verbs
Simple Past
FORM
[VERB+ed] or irregular verbsExamples:
Complete List of Simple Past Forms- You called Debbie.
- Did you call Debbie?
- You did not call Debbie.
USE 1 Completed Action in the Past
Use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the specific time, but they do have one specific time in mind.
Examples:
- I saw a movie yesterday.
- I didn't see a play yesterday.
- Last year, I traveled to Japan.
- Last year, I didn't travel to Korea.
- Did you have dinner last night?
- She washed her car.
- He didn't wash his car.
USE 2 A Series of Completed Actions
We use the Simple Past to list a series of completed actions in the past. These actions happen 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on.
Examples:
- I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to swim.
- He arrived from the airport at 8:00, checked into the hotel at 9:00, and met the others at 10:00.
- Did you add flour, pour in the milk, and then add the eggs?
USE 3 Duration in Past
The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and stops in the past. A duration is a longer action often indicated by expressions such as: for two years, for five minutes, all day, all year, etc.
Examples:
- I lived in Brazil for two years.
- Shauna studied Japanese for five years.
- They sat at the beach all day.
- They did not stay at the party the entire time.
- We talked on the phone for thirty minutes.
- A: How long did you wait for them?
B: We waited for one hour.
USE 4 Habits in the Past
The Simple Past can also be used to describe a habit which stopped in the past. It can have the same meaning as "used to." To make it clear that we are talking about a habit, we often add expressions such as: always, often, usually, never, when I was a child, when I was younger, etc.
Examples:
- I studied French when I was a child.
- He played the violin.
- He didn't play the piano.
- Did you play a musical instrument when you were a kid?
- She worked at the movie theater after school.
- They never went to school, they always skipped class.
USE 5 Past Facts or Generalizations
The Simple Past can also be used to describe past facts or generalizations which are no longer true. As in USE 4 above, this use of the Simple Past is quite similar to the expression "used to."
Examples:
- She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing.
- He didn't like tomatoes before.
- Did you live in Texas when you were a kid?
- People paid much more to make cell phone calls in the past.
IMPORTANT When-Clauses Happen First
Clauses are groups of words which have meaning but are often not complete sentences. Some clauses begin with the word "when" such as "when I dropped my pen..." or "when class began..." These clauses are called when-clauses, and they are very important. The examples below contain when-clauses.Examples:
When-clauses are important because they always happen first when both clauses are in the Simple Past. Both of the examples above mean the same thing: first, I paid her one dollar, and then, she answered my question. It is not important whether "when I paid her one dollar" is at the beginning of the sentence or at the end of the sentence. However, the example below has a different meaning. First, she answered my question, and then, I paid her one dollar.- When I paid her one dollar, she answered my question.
- She answered my question when I paid her one dollar.
Example:
- I paid her one dollar when she answered my question.
ADVERB PLACEMENT
The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.Examples:
- You just called Debbie.
- Did you just call Debbie?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE
Examples:
More About Active / Passive Forms- Tom repaired the car. Active
- The car was repaired by Tom. Passive
EXERCISES AND RELATED TOPICS
- Verb Tense Exercise 3 Simple Past and Past Continuous
- Verb Tense Exercise 4 Simple Past and Past Continuous
- Verb Tense Exercise 5 Simple Past and Present Perfect
- Verb Tense Exercise 6 Simple Past and Present Perfect
- Verb Tense Exercise 11 Simple Past and Past Perfect
- Verb Tense Exercise 12 Simple Past, Present Perfect, and Past Perfect
- Verb Tense Exercise 15 Tenses with durations
- Verb Tense Exercise 16 Present and Past Tenses with Non-Continuous Verbs
- Verb Tense Exercise 17 Present and Past Tense Review
- Verb Tense Practice Test Cumulative Verb Tense Review
- Verb Tense Final Test Cumulative Verb Tense Review
Simple Past
Simple Past
FORM
[VERB+ed] or irregular verbsExamples:
Complete List of Simple Past Forms- You called Debbie.
- Did you call Debbie?
- You did not call Debbie.
USE 1 Completed Action in the Past
Use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the specific time, but they do have one specific time in mind.
Examples:
- I saw a movie yesterday.
- I didn't see a play yesterday.
- Last year, I traveled to Japan.
- Last year, I didn't travel to Korea.
- Did you have dinner last night?
- She washed her car.
- He didn't wash his car.
USE 2 A Series of Completed Actions
We use the Simple Past to list a series of completed actions in the past. These actions happen 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on.
Examples:
- I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to swim.
- He arrived from the airport at 8:00, checked into the hotel at 9:00, and met the others at 10:00.
- Did you add flour, pour in the milk, and then add the eggs?
USE 3 Duration in Past
The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and stops in the past. A duration is a longer action often indicated by expressions such as: for two years, for five minutes, all day, all year, etc.
Examples:
- I lived in Brazil for two years.
- Shauna studied Japanese for five years.
- They sat at the beach all day.
- They did not stay at the party the entire time.
- We talked on the phone for thirty minutes.
- A: How long did you wait for them?
B: We waited for one hour.
USE 4 Habits in the Past
The Simple Past can also be used to describe a habit which stopped in the past. It can have the same meaning as "used to." To make it clear that we are talking about a habit, we often add expressions such as: always, often, usually, never, when I was a child, when I was younger, etc.
Examples:
- I studied French when I was a child.
- He played the violin.
- He didn't play the piano.
- Did you play a musical instrument when you were a kid?
- She worked at the movie theater after school.
- They never went to school, they always skipped class.
USE 5 Past Facts or Generalizations
The Simple Past can also be used to describe past facts or generalizations which are no longer true. As in USE 4 above, this use of the Simple Past is quite similar to the expression "used to."
Examples:
- She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing.
- He didn't like tomatoes before.
- Did you live in Texas when you were a kid?
- People paid much more to make cell phone calls in the past.
IMPORTANT When-Clauses Happen First
Clauses are groups of words which have meaning but are often not complete sentences. Some clauses begin with the word "when" such as "when I dropped my pen..." or "when class began..." These clauses are called when-clauses, and they are very important. The examples below contain when-clauses.Examples:
When-clauses are important because they always happen first when both clauses are in the Simple Past. Both of the examples above mean the same thing: first, I paid her one dollar, and then, she answered my question. It is not important whether "when I paid her one dollar" is at the beginning of the sentence or at the end of the sentence. However, the example below has a different meaning. First, she answered my question, and then, I paid her one dollar.- When I paid her one dollar, she answered my question.
- She answered my question when I paid her one dollar.
Example:
- I paid her one dollar when she answered my question.
ADVERB PLACEMENT
The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.Examples:
- You just called Debbie.
- Did you just call Debbie?
ACTIVE / PASSIVE
Examples:
More About Active / Passive Forms- Tom repaired the car. Active
- The car was repaired by Tom. Passive
EXERCISES AND RELATED TOPICS
- Verb Tense Exercise 3 Simple Past and Past Continuous
- Verb Tense Exercise 4 Simple Past and Past Continuous
- Verb Tense Exercise 5 Simple Past and Present Perfect
- Verb Tense Exercise 6 Simple Past and Present Perfect
- Verb Tense Exercise 11 Simple Past and Past Perfect
- Verb Tense Exercise 12 Simple Past, Present Perfect, and Past Perfect
- Verb Tense Exercise 15 Tenses with durations
- Verb Tense Exercise 16 Present and Past Tenses with Non-Continuous Verbs
- Verb Tense Exercise 17 Present and Past Tense Review
- Verb Tense Practice Test Cumulative Verb Tense Review
- Verb Tense Final Test Cumulative Verb Tense Review
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